THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911 = COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the f « UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE < All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION . ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXI PAYN to POLKA Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. R. A. F. P. A. G. A. G. T. A. H.* A. H. C. A. H. H. A. H.-S. A. H. S. A. J. G. A. J. H. A. J. L. A. Ma. A. N. ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classi- ' fication of Flowering Plants ; &c. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-" 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). J H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;] Police. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. Plants: Classification. • "erne, Andrew. ARTHUR GEORGE TANSLEY, M.A., F.L.S. Lecturer in Botany in the University of Cambridge. of Botany, University College, London. Formerly Assistant Professor 1 Plants: Anatomy. ALBERT HAUCK, D.Tn., D.Pn. Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, and Director of the Museum of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Kirchenrat of the Kingdom of Saxony. , Member of the Royal Saxon Academy ot Sciences and Corresponding Member of ") Pilgrimage. the Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; &c. Editor of the new edition of Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche. SIR ARTHUR HERBERT CHURCH, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A. f Professor of Chemistry, Royal Academy of Arts, London. Author of Chemistry \ Pigments. of Paints and Painting ; English Earthenware ; English Porcelain ; &c. Photography: Pictorial. |" Persia: Geography and \ Statistics. \ Persepolis (in part). ARTHUR HORSLEY HINTON (1863-1008). Editor of The Amateur Photographer, 1897-1908, and the Photographic Trades Gazette, 1904-1908. Author of Practical Pictorial Photography; &c. SlR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., LITT.D. See the biographical article : SAYCE, A. H. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. r Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J „, / • \ College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of] p'ymoutn Brethren (in part). Mysore Educational Service. ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). r Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music, Pianoforte (in part)' ' Pitch, Musical. London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885; of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Musical Instruments; &c. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. Editor of the Rio News ] Peru: Geography and Statistics. ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Phrenology; Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's ~{ Phveino-nnmv College. Author of Text Book of Human Anatomy; &c. Peacock; Pelican; Penguin; Petrel; Pheasant; Pigeon; Pipit; Pitta; Plover; Pochard. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. 1990 VI A. Se.* A. SI. A. S. P.-P. A. S. Wo. A. T. I. B. R. C. Bi. C. E.* C. E. A. C. E. M. C. G. K. C. L. K. C. M. C. Pf. C. P. J. C. R. M. C. S. P. C.T.* C. W. R. D. G. H. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES .ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S. Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. Member of Council of Epidemiplogical Society. Author of The London Water- Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington, the Geological Society of London. ALEXANDER TAYLOR INNES, M.A., LL.D. Scotch Advocate. Author of John Knox; Law of Creeds in Scotland; Studies in Scottish History ; &c. SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E. Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of London, and Port of London Authorty. President of the Society of Chemical Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of Institute of Chemistry. Author of "Cantor" Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and its Products ; Chemical Technology ; &c. REV. CHARLES BIGG, M.A., D.D. (1840-1908). Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Oxford, and Canon of Christ Church, 1901-1908. Formerly Senior Student and Tutor of Christ Church. Headmaster of Brighton College. Author of The Christian Platonists of Alexandria; •&c. CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. Secretary of-j Plesiosaurus. Pilate, Pontius. Petroleum. Philo (in part). -; Phosphates. CHARLES EDWARD AKERS. r Formerly Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires. Author of A History of South J Peru: History (in part) America, 1854-1904. ^ CHARLES EDWARD Moss, D.Sc. Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Curator of the University Herbarium. Plants: Ecology. Photometry. CARGILL GILSTON KNOTT, D.Sc. Lecturer on Applied Mathematics, Edinburgh University. Professor of Physics, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo, 1883—1891. Author of Electricity and' Magnetism ; Physics ; &c. [ CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A. [~ Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor J Payne, Peter, of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik- im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c. Pius IX.; Poissy, Colloquy of. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES. L. r Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of \ Pippin I.-III. Etudes sur le rkgne de Robert le Pieux. CHARLES PIERPOINT JOHNSON (1791-1880). r Lecturer on Botany, Guy's Hospital, London, 1830-1873. Editor of J. A. Sowerby's ^ Pine. English Botany ; &c. Author of Ferns of Great Britain ; &c. SIR CLEMENT? ROBERT MARKHAM, K.C.B., F.R.S. See the biographical article: MARKHAM, SIR CLEMENTS ROBERT. J Peru: History (in part). THE RT. HON. CHARLES STUART PARKER, LL.D., D.C.L. (1829-1910). M.P. for Perthshire, 1868-1874; M.P. for Perth City, 1878-1892. Honorary Fellow, i D formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Life of Sir Robert Peel;^ * Bel» & '"• &c. REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908). Master of St John's College, Cambridge, 1881-1908. Vice-Chancellor, 1887-1888. J Pirke Aboth. Author of Geometrical Conies ; &c. 1 MAJOR-GENERAL CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L. r Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, 1890-1892. Lieut.- Ponincniir War Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895-1898. Author of 1 Strategy of the Peninsular War ; &c. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Perga; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899^ Pergamunr and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens. 1897-1000. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn D. H. E. A. J. E. A. So. E. Br. E. G. E. Gr. E. J. D. Ed. M. E. M. H. E.G.* E. O'N. E. Pr. E. R. B. E. S.* E. Tn. F. A. P. F. G. P. F. J. G. F. LI. G. F.N. F. W. Ga. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. : Author of Short History of the Royal • E. ALFRED JONES. Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Cata- •< Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of the Penn, Admiral; Pepys; Pescara, Marquis of; Peter I.-IV. of Aragon; Peter of Castile; Pirate and Piracy: History; Poe, Edgar Allan; Poland: History (in part). Plate (in part). I Plautus. logue of . Royal Plate at Windsor Castle ; &c. EDWARD ADOLF SONNENSCHEIN, M.A., Lrrr.D. Professor of Greek and Latin in the University of Birmingham. Hon. Secretary J j of the Classical Association. Professor of Greek and Latin in Mason College, Birmingham, 1883-1900. Editor of several of the plays of Plautus. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. J Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly "\ "6ter the Hermit. Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Pindarics. | Phigalia. - Pergolesi. {PerSz; Persia* Ancient History- D ; ' n. •" rersis, rnarnaoazus, Phraates; Phraortes. EDWARD MORELL HOLMES. Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, London. f Pharmacopoeia; 1 Pharmacy. EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f Ppritnni-«,. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J L:*1 Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner 1 rnaryngltis; in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Phlebitis. Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (MRS H. 0. O'NEILL). /Peckham, John. Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of Manchester University. \ EDGAR PRESTAGE. r Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex- aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- J Pma, Ruy de; mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon j Pinto, Fernao Mendes. Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the- High Priests. EMIL SCHURER, D.PH. (1844-1910). Formerly Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the Universities of Giessen, Kiel and Gottingen. Author of Geschichte des jiidischen' Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu ' Chris ti; &c. REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON (d. 1907). Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England. Perdiceas; Philip I., II., and V. of Mace- donia. Philo (in part). Pole, Cardinal. J Plutarch (in part). FREDERICK APTHORP PALEY, LL.D. See the biographical article, PALEY, F. A. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Pharynx; Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, H Placenta. London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERIC JOHN GOLDSMID. See the biographical article : GOLDSMID (family). FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford' University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey Pelusium; and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial J Pharaoh; German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Assistant Professor of Egyptology ~\ pnjlae' in University College, London. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; I "itiioni. J Persia: History, 1405-1884 (in \ part). &c. FRIDTJOF NANSEN. See the biographical article: NANSEN, FRIDTJOF. Polar Regions (in part). FREDERICK WILLIAM GAMBLE, D.Sc., M.Sc., F.R.S. r „,__.._,.,-.,.. Professor of Zoology, Birmingham University. Formerly Assistant Director of the J "* Zoological Laboratories, and Lecturer in Zoology, University of Manchester. 1 Platyelmia. Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology; &c. I Vlll F. W. R.* G. A. C.* G. A. Gr. X G. Ch. G. C. W. G.E. G. E.* G. E. C. G. G. P.* G. H. Bo. G. H. Fo. G. W. R. H. Bi. H. Cl. H. De. H.E. H. F. G. H. G. de W. H. H. T. H. L. H. H. M. W. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Peridot; Phosphates: Curator and Librarian of the Museum °f Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. H Mineral Phosphates (in part). President of the Geologists Association, 1887-1889. REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, D.D. Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of I Petra; Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral,] Phoenicia. Edinburgh. Author of Text Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, . Indian Civil Service, 1873-190 1902. Gold Medallist, Ro Asiatic Society. Formerly of India ; &c. GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D. f Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University. -( Perpetual Motion. Hon. Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. L ,, f Petitot, Jean; Petitot, J. Louis; GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. Pinwpll rpnnra Inhn- Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard \ ™ eii, ueo e jonn, Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition! rumer, Andrew; of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. Plimer, Nathaniel; I Plumbago Drawings. -1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898- >yal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal 4 Pisaca Languages Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages Ford's Lecturer, 1909. Member, Netherlands Pensionary; Peru: History (in part). Joint-editor of English \ Peerage. I Plata, Rio de la. Phylactery (in part). f Petersburg Campaign: I (1864-1865). REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; and Foreign Association of Literature. ROBERT GEOFFREY ELLIS. Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History. GEORGE EARL CHURCH. See the biographical article: CHURCH, G. E. GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. /Pilot (in •hart) Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \ r REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908- ' 1909. Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah; &c. GEORGE HERBERT FOWLER, F.Z.S., F.L.S., PH.D. Formerly Berkeley Research Fellow, Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant j Plankton. Professor of Zoology at University College, London. GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY. Author of The War oj Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. HIRAM BINGHAM, A.M., PH.D. r Assistant Professor of Latin-American History, Yale University. Albert Shaw J pv,jijDDjnp Lecturer on Diplomatic History, Johns Hopkins University. Author of Journal'] of an Expedition across Venezuela and Colombia ; &c. SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author-^ Penang. of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary of the Malay Language. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, SJ. Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana -< Pelagia, St. and A eta Sanctorum. ( KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., PH.D. f Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of I persja. Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, ] London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. L HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. [ Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. J Phororhacos. Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History. HERMANN G. DE WATTEVILLE. Instructor, Staff College, Camberley, Surrey. HERBERT HALL TURNER, M.A., D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. Savilian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford and Fellow of New J Photography, Celestial; College. President of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author ofl Photometry, Celestial. Modern Astronomy; &c. t r Pharmacology: Terminology; /Plymouth (England). .TT,r,T,TTT,r,CT HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. plague HARRY MARSHALL WARD, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (d. 1905). f Formerly Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Sidney Sussex College. President of the British Mycological Society. Author of Timber J Plants: Pathology. and Some of its Diseases; The Oak; Sack's Lectures on the Physiology of Plants; Diseases in Plants ; &c. J. Ga. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix H. R. H. HARRY REGINALD HOLLAND HALL, M.A. f Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum. ~{ Plate (in part). Author of The Oldest Civilization of Greece ; &c. I H. R. K. HARRY ROBERT KEMPE, M.lNST.C.E. f Electrician to the General Post Office, London. Author of The Engineer's Year"] Pneumatic Despatch. Book ; &c. I H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D. i Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of British Rainfall. President of the Royal Meteorological Society, 1907-1908. Hon. Member of Vienna Gep- J p0Iar Regions graphical Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of The Realm of Nature; The International Geography; &c. H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. f perj0(jjcais Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. \ H. Sc. HENRY SCHERREN, F.Z.S. f Assistant Natural History Editor of The Field. Author of Popular History of\ Platypus (in part). Animals for Young People; Pond, and Rock Pools; &c. H. Sw. HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. f University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Academies J pj,nnpf,,c of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English 1 Sounds since the Earliest Period ; A Primer of Phonetics ; &c. H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A. /Pistol M.P. for St Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. \ H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J p, t ,. . ,\ School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 1 a e ^n Pan>- Author of The Roman Empire ; &c. I H. W.* HAROLD W. T. WAGER, F.R.S. f H.M. Inspector of Secondary Schools, Board of Education, London. President, J Plants: Cytology. Botanical Section, British Association, 1905. Author of Memoirs on the Structure j of the Fungi ; &c. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f _ Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 Peter des R°ches. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Perles Joseph. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short j History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. I. G. ISRAEL GOLLANCZ, M.A., Lrrr.D. Professor of English Language and Literature, King's College, London, and Dean J ppa,i rr,u of the Faculty of Arts, University of London. Fellow and Secretary of the British 1 ' Academy. Editor of The Pearl ; The " Temple " Shakespeare ; &c. I J. A. H. JOHN ALLAN HOWE, B.Sc. I" Permian; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of 1 Pleistocene; The Geology of Building Stones. [ Pliocene. J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D., D.C.L. J Petrarch; Poggio; See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. A. j Politian. J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. r Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's] pi.-for u/nrt College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior I rlasMr~worK- Engineers. Author of Quantities. 3. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. r King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J phjlinnj Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of ] Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. t. J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A. , Lrrr.D., LL.D. f Pliny the Elder; Public Orator in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College. 4 niinu *i,. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical Scholarship; &c. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. r , Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Pereda, Jose Maria de; Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 4 Perez Galdos, Benito; Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Picaresque Novel The. Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. J. F. P. JOSEPH FRANK PAYNE, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1840-1910). r Formerly Harveian Librarian, Royal College of Physicians. Hon. Fellow of J _, ,. •, Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of University of London. Author of Lectures 1 Plague (in part), on Anglo-Saxon Medicine; &c. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. Jr>.,, . /•„„.•;., (;„ i,n.f\ See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. \ *«"*• /om/? »• Pari> J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f Po.c-_..c Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln 1 College. Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. X J. G. FT. J. H. A. H. J. H. M. J. H. R. J. H. V. C. J. L. M. J. L. W. J. Mt. J. M. M. J. P. P. J. R. C. J. R. Gr. J. S. F. J. T. Be. J. T. C. J. W. J.Wa. J. Wai.* J. W. D. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lirr.D. Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University, and Fellow of Trinity - College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough; &c. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. Penates (in part). Pharisees. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). r Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director phi of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 1 Pilchard. University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln •{ Personal Property. College. Barrister of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Wills and Succession; &c. JAMES WATERHOUSE. Major-General, Indian Army (retired). Assistant Surveyor-General of India in charge of Photographic and Lithographic Branch, Calcutta, 1866-1897. President -! Photography: Apparatus. of the Royal Photographic Society, 1905—1906. Author of The Preparation of I Drawings for Photographic Purposes ; &c. I JAMES WALKER, M.A. f Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory. Formerly J Polarization of Light Vice-President of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Light; } &c. J. WHTT'LY DIXON. M Captain, R.N. Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. /Pilot dn part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi K. G. K. L. K. S. Persia: Language. L. C. L. F. V.-H. L. J. S. M. M. Be. M. D. M. N. T. M. 0. B. C. M. V. N. D. M. N. M. N. V. N. W. T. 0. A. 0. Ba. 0. C. W. O.K. P. A. K. KARL FRIEDRICH GELDNER, PH.D. Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Marburg. Author of Vedische Studien ; &c. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J Peter, Saint; ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- I Peter, Epistles Of ment ; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ ; &c. Pedal Clarinet; KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. COUNT LtJTzow, Lnr.D., PH.D., F.R.G.S. Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Author • of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c. REV. LEWIS CAMPBELL, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: CAMPBELL, LEWIS. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1830-1907). Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author of Rivers and Canals ; Harbours and Docks ; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- ' struction; &c. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Miner- alogical Magazine. LORD MACAULAY. See the biographical article: MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON. MALCOLM BELL. Author of Pewter Plate ; &c. REV. MARCUS DODS, D.D. See the biographical article : DODS, MARCUS. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. Philomel; Physharmonica; Pianoforte (in part); Piccolo; Pipe and Tabor; Platerspiel. Podebrad, George Of. Plato. pjer r Perovskite; Petalite; PharmaeosidpritP- f,"8 1 Pnenaeite; PhllllpSlte; \ Phlogopite; Phosgenite; ' Pitchblende; Plagioclase. / \ Pewter. Pela_ius \ r 4 Perioeci. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham • Pelopidas; Periander; Pericles; Phocion; Phocis; Plataea. MAX VERWORN, D.Sc., M.D., PH.D. Professor of Physiology and Director of the Physiological Institute in the University -< Physiology. of Bonn. Author of Allgemeine Physiologie; &c. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. University, 1905-1908. ' f Philippine Islands: \ Geography and Statistics - NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's - Philoxenus. College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. • JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. f Member of Acad^mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire de J Pisa, Council of. France and the Soci6t6 de 1'Ecole des Chartes. Author of La France et le grand I schisme d' Occident ; &c. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the _, Soci6t6 d'Anthropolpgie of Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and] Physical Phenomena. Marriage in A ustralia ; &c. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. r H.M. Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J pfinn William Education, London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles'] ' II. ; &c. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. [ OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f . Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the < rote family). Honourable Society of the Baronetage. [ REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. f Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. -J Pentecost. Principal of the Countess of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt, 1895-1905. [_ OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. [ Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the I Perspective City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent 1 Figures; &c. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. I [ Perm (*n Podolia (in part); [ Poland, Russian (in part). xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES P. A. T. P. A. TIELE. f Formerly Librarian, Utrecht University. Author of Biographical and Historical i Plantin. Memoir on the Voyages of the Dutch Navigators ; &c. L P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. f Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in J Phosphorescence: in Zoology. Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., F.S.A., D.LITT. / Pheidicis. See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. I P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J Philology (in part) Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological i Society. P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. I" Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J persja- Ceoloev of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian ] Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. L P. Sm. PRESERVED SMITH, Pn.D. f pius j an(j jj Rufus B. Kellogg University Fellow, Amherst College, U S.A. \ P. V. • PASQUALE VILLARI. f pisa See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE. \ R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D D.C.L. f pj d ({ A See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. \ rl R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. / Peacock, Thomas Love. See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ i R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f p-dinaini. ppr,tastnmida Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ Pedlpalpl, atastomida. R. K. D. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. r Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese Consular J Peking. Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China; China; Europe and the Far East ; &c. I Peccary; Pecora; R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. Pere David's Deer; Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Perissodactyla* Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The} „,.„ „..*„, Deer of all Lands ;&c. ^halal^e,r> ™enacodus, [ Pica; Polecat. R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f *»™>*ny; Pecljlin; Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia; the °e'e !• ant* *"• °' Russia; Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J Petofl, Alexander Philaret; 1613-1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from pjper, Carl; 1460 to 1706; &c. I Poland: History (in part). R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L. Cm.-!' *». i> Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque I B010; Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens; Recueil\ Philip the Good. des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c. R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J Pier (in architecture). London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's | History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. [ R. S.* RALPH STOCKMAN, M.D., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.C.P.(Edin.). /Pharmacology. Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the University of Glasgow. 1 R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. r Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J pjcenum (in Part). Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville 1 and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [ R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S.(Edin.), F.L.S. Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton I Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., ,. .. Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agri-\ PIS U» fo.rt). culture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of Cape Colony; &c. S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Philistines. Aramaic, London University, 1904—1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In- scriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. S. F. H. SIDNEY FREDERIC HARMER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Department, British Museum. Fellow, I phorinidea formerly Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of The j Cambridge Natural History. I INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii S. H. V.* SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Sherardian Professor of Botany, University of Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow of the University of London. President of the Linnean Society, , 1900-1904. Formerly Reader in Botany in the University of Cambridge and ] Plants: Morphology. Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. Author of A Student's Textbook of Botany; &c. S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. /Planet; See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ Planets, Minor. T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. f Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Perugia; Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of 4 Pjeenum (in part)' the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- pirnTnn graphy of the Roman Campagna. T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. f peace- Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J D ' r . Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for! Blackburn, 1910. [Pirate and Piracy: Law. T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, Pn.D. J" D. IIT .„ . „ Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. I rlllS 1U'» 1V* an° V> T. G. Br. THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S. Professor Superintendent, Brown Animal Sanatory Institution, University of London. Professor of Physiology, Royal Veterinary College, London. Lecturer-^ Phagocytosis. on Physiology, London School of Medicine for Women. Fellow of King's College, London. Author of Essentials of Experimental Physiology. T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. f Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the J Plymouth Brethren (in part) Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of j History of the Reformation ; Life of Luther; &c. L Th. N. THEODOR NOLDEKE, PH.D. /Persepolis (in part). See the biographical article : NOLDEKE, THEODOR. I T. S.* SIR THOMAS STEVENSON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1838-1908). f Formerly Senior Scientific Analyst to the Home Office. Lecturer on Chemistry -J Poison, and Forensic Medicine at Guy's Hospital, London. T. W.-D. WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON. f Ponfrv See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE. \ T. W. H. THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON, A.M., LL.D. f Vh,n{.. Author of Atlantic Essays; Cheerful Yesterdays; History of the United States; &c. \ P ' T. \V. R. D. THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. f Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of -j Piprawa. Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. W. C. Su. WALTER COVENTRY SUMMERS, M.A. r Professor of Latin in the University of Sheffield. Formerly Fellow of St John's J Persius; College, Cambridge. Craven Scholar, 1890. Chancellor's Medallist, 1892. Author 1 PetronillS (in part). of A Study of Valerius Flaccus ; &c. W. D. C. V.'ILLIAM DOUGLAS CAROE, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Architect to the Ecclesiastical Commission and the -| Pearson, John Loughborough. Charity Commission, London W. D. W. WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY. / _ . . , See the biographical article: WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT. -^Philology (in part). W. de W. A. SIR WILLIAM DE WIVELESLIE ABNEY, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S. Adviser in Science to the Board of Education for England. Member of the Advisory Council for Education to the War Office. Formerly President of Royal -j Photography. Astronomical Society, Physical Society and Royal Photographic Society. Author of Instruction in Photography ; Colour Vision ; &c. L W. E. G. F. WILLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. LLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. f Author of The Transvaal and the Boers. \ Phylloxera. W. Fr. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). f Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and -< Pig (in part). Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple and Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, -s Pleading. London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yd edition). W. Ga. WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., D.Sc. Professor of Zoology in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Scientific Adviser to H.M. Delegates on the International Council "j Pisciculture. for the Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907. Author of The Impoverishment of the Sea; &c. W. Hi. WHEELTON HIND, M.D., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. f Surgeon, North Staffs Infirmary. Lyell Medallist, Geological Society, 1902. Author 4 Pendleside Series, of British Carboniferous Lambellibranchiata; &c. I W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f Platypus (in part). See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. 1 XIV INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, DANTE G. W. M. Ra. SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L., D.Lrrr. See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W. M. W. P. C. WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. See the article: COURTNEY, Baron. W. R. M. WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; Slavonic Literature; &c. W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. W. R. S.* WILLIAM ROY SMITH, M.A., PH.D. Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Author of Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c. W. S. R. WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the Present Period ; and other works on the history of music. W. T. T.-D. SIR WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D., F.L.S. Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906. Joint-author of Flora of Middlesex. W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, D.Pn. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. W. Y. S. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. See the biographical article: SELLAR, W. Y. /Perino del Vaga; \ Perugino, Pietro. -} Phrygia; Pisidla. /Peterborough and Monmouth, 1 Earl of. Literature. \ Poland: Lit, | Phylactery (in part). Polk, James Knox. Plain Song. Plants: Distribution. Pius VI., VII., and VIII. J Petronius (in part). Pea. Pepper. Peach. Peppermint. Pear. Perfumery. Peat. Perier. Peeblesshire. Perigueux. Pembroke, Earls of. Peripatetics. Pembroke. Perjury. Pembrokeshire. Pernambueo. Pen. Perrault. Pencil. Perrot. Penitential. Personality. Pennine Chain. Perth (N.B.). Pennsylvania. Perthshire. Pennsylvania, University of. Pessimism. Pensacola. Peterborough. Pension. Petition. Penzance. Philadelphia. Peoria. Philately. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES, Philostratus. Phonograph. Phormium. Phosphorus. Photius. Photochemistry. Physiocratic School. Physiologus. Piacenza. Picardy. Piceolomini. Pichegru. Pietism. Pigeon-flying. Pilgrim. Pin. Pink. Pipe. Piquet. Pistoia. Pitcher Plants. Pittsburg. Plantation. Platinum. Pleurisy. Pleuro-Pneumonia. Plock. Plough and Ploughing. Plum. Plymouth (U.S.A.). Pneumatic Gun. Pneumonia. Pnom-Penh. Poitiers. Poker. Pola. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXI PAYN, JAMES (1830-1898), English novelist, was born at Cheltenham, on the 28th of February 1830, his father being clerk to the Thames Commissioners and treasurer to the county of Berkshire. He was educated at Eton, and afterwards entered the Military Academy at Woolwich ; but his health was not equal to the demands of a military career, and he proceeded in 1847 to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was among the most popular men of his time, and served as president of the Union. Before going to Cambridge he had published some verses in Leigh Hunt's Journal, and while still an undergraduate put forth a volume of Stories from Boccaccio in 1852, and in 1853 a volume of Poems. In the same year he left Cambridge, and shortly afterwards married Miss Louisa Adelaide Edlin, sister of Sir Peter Edlin. He then settled down in the Lake district to a literary career and contributed regularly to Household Words and Chambers' s Journal. In 1858 he removed to Edin- burgh to act as joint-editor of the latter periodical. He became sole editor in 1859, and conducted the magazine with much success for fifteen years. He removed to London in 1861. In the pages of the Journal he published in 1864 his most popular story, Lost Sir Massingberd. From this time he was always engaged in novel-writing, among the most popular of his productions being Married Beneath Him (1865), Carlyon's Year (1868), By Proxy (1878), and The Talk of the Town (1885). In 1883 he succeeded Leslie Stephen as editor of the Cornhill Magazine and continued in the post until the breakdown of his health in 1896. He was also literary adviser to Messrs Smith, Elder & Company. His publications included a Handbook to the English Lakes (1859), and various volumes of occasional essays, Maxims by a Man of the World (1869), Some Private Views (1881), Some Literary Recollections (1884). A posthumous work, The Backwater of Life (1899), revealed much of his own personality in a mood of kindly, sensible reflection upon familiar topics. He died in London, on the 25th of March 1898. A biographical introduction to The Backwater of Life was furnished by Sir Leslie Stephen. PAYNE, PETER (c. 1380-1455), English Lollard and Taborite, the son of a Frenchman by an English wife, was born at Hough- on-the-Hill near Grantham, about 1380. He was educated at Oxford, where he adopted Lollard opinions, and had graduated as a master of arts before the 6th of October 1406, when he was concerned in the irregular proceedings through which a letter declaring the sympathy of the university was addressed to the Bohemian reformers. From 1410 to 1414 Payne was principal of St Edmund Hall, and during these years was engaged in controversy with Thomas Netter of Walden, the Carmelite defender of Catholic doctrine. In 1414 he was compelled to leave Oxford and taught for a time in London. Ultimately XXI. I he had to flee from England, and took refuge in Bohemia, where he was received by the university of Prague on the i3th of February 1417, and soon became a leader of the reformers. He joined the sect of the " Orphans," and had a prominent part in the discussions and conferences of the ten years from 1420 to 1430. When the Bohemians agreed to send representatives to the Council of Basel, Payne was naturally chosen to be one of their delegates. He arrived at Basel, on the 4th of January 1433, and his unyielding temper and bitter words probably did much to prevent a settlement. The Bohemians left Basel in April. The party of the nobles, who had been ready to make terms, were attacked in the Diet at Prague, by the Orphans and Taborites. Next year the dispute led to open war. The nobles were victorious at Lipau on the 29th of May 1434, and it was reported in England that Payne was killed. When soon afterwards the majority of the Orphans joined the moderate party, Payne allied himself with the more extreme Taborites. Nevertheless his reputation was so great that he was accepted as an arbitrator in doctrinal disputes amongst the reformers. In February 1437 the pope desired the emperor Sigismund to send Payne to be tried for heresy at Basel. Payne had to leave his pastorate at Saas, and took refuge with Peter Chelcicky, the Bohemian author. Two years later he was captured and imprisoned at Gutenstein, but was ransomed by his Taborite friends. Payne took part in the conferences of the Bohemian parties in 1443-1444, and again in 1452. He died at Prague in 1455. He was a learned and eloquent controversialist, and a faithful adherent to Wycliffe's doctrine. Payne was also known as Clerk at Oxford, as Peter English in Bohemia, and as Freyng, after his French father, and Hough from his birth place. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chief facts of Payne's English career are given in the Loci e libra veritatum of T. Gascoigne (ed. Thorold Rogers, Oxford, 1881). For his later life the principal sources are contained in the Monumenta • conciliorum generalium saeculi »., Saeculi xv., or saeculi quintodecimi, vols. i.— iii. (Vienna, 1857—1894). For modern authorities consult Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, vii.-ix., and Creighton's History of the Papacy. The biography by James Baker, A Forgotten Great Englishman (London, 1894) is too partial. (C. L. K.) PAYNTER (or PAINTER), WILLIAM (c. 1540-1594), English author, was a native of Kent. He matriculated at St John's College, Cambridge, in 1554. In 1561 he became clerk of the ordnance in the Tower of London, a position in which he appears to have amassed a fortune out of the public funds. In 1586 he confessed that he owed the government a thousand pounds, and in the next year further charges of peculation were brought against him. In 1591 his son Anthony owned that he and his father had abused their trust, but Paynter retained his office until his death. This event probably followed PAYSANDU— PEA immediately upon his will, which was nuncupative and was dated the i4th of February 1594. The first volume of his Palace of Pleasure appeared in 1566, and was dedicated to the earl of Warwick. It included sixty tales, and was followed in the next year by a second volume containing thirty-four new ones. A second improved edition in 1575 contained seven new stories. Paynter borrows from Herodotus, Plutarch, Aulus Gcllius, Aelian, Livy, Tacitus, Quintus Curtius; from Giraldi Cinthio, Matteo Bandello, Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, Straparola, Queen Margaret of Navarre and others. To the vogue of this and similar collections we owe the Italian setting of so large a pro- portion of the Elizabethan drama. The early tragedies of A p plus and Virginia, and Tancred and Gismund were taken from The Palace of Pleasure; and among better-known plays derived from the book are the Shakespearian Timon of Athens, All's Well that Ends Well (from Giletta of Narbonne), Beaumont and Fletcher's Triumph of Death and Shirley's Love's Cruelty. The Palace of Pleasure was edited by Joseph Haslewood in 1813. This edition was collated (1890) with the British Museum copy of !575 by Mr Joseph Jacobs, who added further prefatory matter, including an introduction dealing with the importance of Italian novelle in Elizabethan drama. PAYSANDtJ, or PAISANDU, a town and river port of Uruguay and capital of a department of the same name, on the left bank of the Uruguay River about 214 m. N.W. of Montevideo, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1908 estimate), 15,000. It has railway connexion with Rio Negro and Montevideo to the south-east, and with Salto and Santa Rosa, on the Brazilian frontier, on the north; it is at the head of low water navigation on the Uruguay River, and is in regular steamer communication with Montevideo and Buenos Aires. There are some good public buildings, including two churches, a hospital, a theatre and the government offices. Paysandii exports cattle and sheep and salted meats, hides, ox tongues, wool and other animal products. There is a meat- curing establishment (saladero) at Guaviyu, in the vicinity. The town was named in honour of Pay, or Pai (Father) Sandu, a priest who settled there in 1772. It has suffered severely from revolutionary outbreaks, was bombarded by Rivera in 1846, and was partly destroyed in 1865 by a Brazilian bombardment, after which its gallant defenders, Leandro Gomez and his companions, were butchered in cold blood. The department of Paysandu — area 5117 sq. m.; pop. (1907, estimate), 54,097 — is one of the richest stock-raising regions of the republic. PAYSON, EDWARD (1783-1827), American Congregational preacher, was born on the 25th of July 1783 at Rindge, New Hampshire, where his father, Seth Payson (1758-1820), was pastor of the Congregational Church. His uncle, Phillips Payson (1736-1801), pastor of a church in Chelsea, Massachusetts, was a physicist and astronomer. Edward Payson graduated at Harvard in 1803, was then principal of a school at Portland, Maine, and in 1807 became junior pastor of the Congregational Church at Portland, where he remained, after 1811, as senior pastor, until his death on the 22nd of October 1827. The most complete collection of his sermons, with a memoir by Asa Cummings originally published in 1828, is the Memoir, Select Thoughts and Sermons of the late Rev. Edward Payson (3 vols., Port- land, 1846; Philadelphia, 1859). "Based on this is the volume, Mementos of Edward Payson (New York, 1873), by the Rev. E. L. Janes of the Methodist Episcopal Church. PAZMANY, PESTER (1570-1637), Hungarian cardinal and statesman, was born at Nagyvarad on the 4th of October 1570, and educated at Nagyvarad and Kolozsvar, at which latter place he quitted the Calvinist confession for the Roman com- munion (1583). In 1587 he entered the Jesuit order. Pazmany went through his probation at Cracow, took his degree at Vienna, and studied theology at Rome, and finally completed his academic course at the Jesuit college at Graz. In 1601 he was sent to the order's establishment at Sellye, where his eloquence and dialectic won back hundreds to Rome, including many of the noblest families. Prince Nicholas Esterhazy and Paul Rakoczy were among his converts. In 1607 he was attached to the archbishop of Esztergom, and in the following year attracted attention by his denunciation, in the Diet, of the 8th point of the peace of Vienna, which prohibited the Jesuits from acquiring landed property in Hungary. At about the same time the pope, on the petition of the emperor Matthias II., released Pazmany from his monkish vows. On the 25th of April 1616 he was made dean of Turocz, and on the 28th of September became primate of Hungary. He received the red hat from Urban VIII. in 1629. Pazmany was the soul of the Roman Catholic reaction in Hungary. Particularly remarkable is his Igazsdgra vezeto Kalauz (Guide to Truth), which appeared in 1613. This manual united all the advantages of scientific depth, methodical arrangement and popular style. As the chief pastor of the Hungarian church Pazmany used every means in his power, short of absolute contravention of the laws, to obstruct and weaken Protestantism, which had risen during the i6th century. In 1619 he founded a seminary for theological candidates at Nagyszombat, and in 1623 laid the foundations of a similar institution at Vienna, the still famous Pazmanaeum, at a cost of 200,000 florins. In 1635 he contributed 100,000 florins towards the foundation of a Hungarian university. He also built Jesuit colleges and schools at Pressburg, and Franciscan monasteries at Ersekujvar and Kormoczbanya. In politics he played a considerable part. It was chiefly due to him that the diet of 1618 elected the archduke Ferdinand to succeed the childless Matthias II. He also repeatedly thwarted the martial ambitions of Gabriel Bethlen, and prevented George Rakoczy I., over whom he had a great influence, from combining with the Turks and the Protestants. But Pazmany's most unforgetable service to his country was his creation of the Hungarian literary language. As an orator he well deserved the epithet of " the Hungarian purple Cicero." Of his numerous works the chief are: The Four Books of Thomas d Kempis on the imitation of Christ (Hung., 1603), of which there are many editions; Diatribe theologica de msibili Christi in terris ecclesia (Graz, 1615); Vindiciae ecclesiasticae (Vienna, 1620); Sermons for every Sunday in the Year (Hung., Pressburg, 1636); The Triumph of Truth (Hung., Pressburg, 1614). See Vilmos Fraknoi, Peter Pdzmdny and his Times (Hung. Pest, 1868-1872); Correspondence of Pazmany (Hung.and Latin), published by the Hungarian Academy (Pest, 1873). (R. N. B.) PAZ SOLDAN, MARIANO FELIPE (1821-1886), Peruvian historian and geographer, was born at Arequipa, on the 22nd of August 1821. He studied law, and after holding some minor judicial offices, was minister to New Granada in 1853. After his return he occupied himself with plans for the establishment of a model penitentiary at Lima, which he was enabled to accomplish through the support of General Castilla. In 1860 Castilla made him director of public works, in which capacity he superintended the erection of the Lima statue of Bolivar. He was also concerned in the reform of the currency by the withdrawal of the debased Bolivian coins. In 1861 he published his great atlas of the republic of Peru, and in 1868 the first volume of his history of Peru after the acquisition of her inde- pendence. A second volume followed, and a third, bringing the history down to 1839, was published after his death by his son. In 1870 he was minister of justice and worship under President Balta, but shortly afterwards retired from public life to devote himself to his great geographical dictionary of Peru, which was published in 1877. During the disastrous war with Chile he sought refuge at Buenos Aires, where he was made professor in the National College, and where he wrote and published a history of the war (1884). He died on the 3ist of December 1886. PEA (Pisum), a genus of the order Leguminosae, consisting of herbs with compound pinnate leaves ending in tendrils, by means of which the weak stems are enabled to support themselves, and with large leafy stipules at the base. The flowers (fig. i) are typically " papilionaceous," with a " standard " or large petal above, two side petals or wings, and two front petals below forming the keel. The stamens are ten — nine united, the tenth usually free or only slightly joined to the others. PEABODY, A. P. St. '-car FIG. i. — Flower of Pea. c, Calyx. st, Standard, a, Alae, or wings. car, Carina, or Keel. This separation allows approach to the honey which is secreted at the base of the staminal tube. The ovary is prolonged into a long, thick, bent style, com- pressed from side to side at the tip and fringed with hairs. The fruit is a characteristic " legume " or pod (fig. 2), bursting when ripe into halves, which bear the large globular seeds (peas) on their edges. These seeds are on short stalks, the upper ex- tremity of which is dilated into a shallow cup (aril); the two seed-leaves (cotyledons) are thick and fleshy, with a radicle bent along their edges on one side. The genus is exceedingly close to Lalhyrus, being only distinguished technically by the style, which in the latter genus is compressed from above downwards and not thick. It is not surprising, therefore, that under the general name " pea " species both of Pisum and of Lalhyrus are included. The common field pea with tan-coloured or compressed mottled seeds and two to four leaflets is Pisum arvense, which is culti- vated in all temperate parts of the globe, but which, according to the Italian botanists, is truly a native of central and southern' Italy: it has purple flowers. The garden pea, P. sativum, which has white flowers, is more tender than the preceding, and its origin is not known. It has not been found in a wild state anywhere, and it is considered that it may be a form of P. arvense, having, however, from four to six leaflets to From vine's student each leaf and globular seeds of uniform Text-book of Botany, by colour. permission of Swan, Son- nenschein & Co. pIG- 2_ _ The r, The dorsal suture. 6, The ventral. c, Calyx. s, Seeds. P. sativum was known to Theophrastus ; and De Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, (legume) of the Pea. P- 3.29) points out that the word " pison " or its equivalent occurs in the Albanian tongue as well as in Latin, whence he con- cludes that the pea was known to the Aryans, and was perhaps brought by them into Greece and Italy. Peas have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings of the bronze period. The garden peas differ considerably in size, shape of pod, degree of productive- ness, form and colour of seed, &c. The sugar peas are those in which the inner lining of the pod is very thin instead of being somewhat horny, so that the whole pod can be eaten. Unlike most papilion- aceous plants, peaflowers are perfectly fertile without the aid of insects, and thus do not intercross so freely as most similar plants do. On the other hand, a case is known wherein the pollen from a purple- podded pea applied to the stigma of one of the green-podded sugar peas produced a purple pod, showing that not only the ovule but even the ovary was affected by the cross. The numerous varieties of peas in cultivation have been obtained by cross-fertilization, but chiefly by selection. Peas constitute a highly nutritious article of diet from the large quantity of nitrogenous materials they contain in addition to starchy and saccharine matters. The sweet pea, cultivated for the beauty and fragrance of its flowers, is a species of the allied genus Lathyrus (L. odoratus), a native of southern Europe. The chick pea (q.v.) (Cicer arieti- num), not cultivated in England, is still farther removed from the true peas. The everlasting pea of gardens is a species of Lathyrus (L. latifolius) with very deep fleshy roots, bold foliage, and beautiful but scentless flowers; the field pea (Pisum arvense) is better adapted than the bean to light soils, and is best culti- vated in rows of such a width as to admit of horse-hoeing. The early stage at which the plants fall over, and forbid further culture, renders it even more needful than in the case of beans to sow them only on land already clean. If annual weeds can be kept in check until the peas once get a close cover, they then occupy the ground so completely that nothing else can live under them; and the ground, after their removal, is found in the choicest condition. A thin crop of peas should never be allowed to stand, as the land is sure to get perfectly wild. The difficulty of getting this crop well harvested renders it peculiarly advisable to sow only the early varieties. The pea prefers a friable calcareous loam, deeply worked, and well enriched with good hotbed or farm-yard manure. The early crops require a warm sheltered situation, but the later are better grown 6 or 8 ft. apart, or more, in the open quarters, dwarf crops being in- troduced between the rows. The dwarf or early sorts may be sown 3 or 4 ft. apart. The deep working of the soil is of importance, lest the plants should suffer in hot dry weather from mildew or arrest of growth. The first sowing may be made about the beginning or middle of November, in front of a south wall, the plants being defended by spruce fir branches or other spray throughout the winter. In February sowings are sometimes made in private gardens, in flower- pots or boxes, and the young plants afterwards planted out. The main crop should be sown towards the end of February, and moder- ate sowings should be made twice a month afterwards, up to the beginning of July for the north, and about the third week in July for warmer districts. During dry hot weather late peas derive great benefit from mulching and watering. The latest sowings, at the middle or end of August, should consist of the best early sorts, as they are not so long in producing pods as the larger and finer sorts, and by this means the supply may be prolonged till October or November. As they grow the earth is drawn up to the stems, which are also supported by stakes, a practice which in a well-kept garden is always advisable, although it is said that the early varieties arrive sooner at maturity when recumbent. Peas grown late in autumn are subject to mildew, to obviate which it has been proposed to dig over the ground in the usual way, and to soak the spaces to be occupied by the rows of peas thoroughly with water — the earth on each side to be then collected so as to form ridges 7 or 8 in. high, these ridges being well watered, and the seed sown on them in single rows. If dry weather at any time S'.-t in, water should be supplied profusely once a week. To produce very early crops the French market-gardeners used to sow early in November, in frames, on a border having a good aspect, the seeds being covered very slightly. The young plants are trans- planted into other frames in December, the ground inside being dug out so as to be 18 or 20 in. below the sashes, and the earth thus removed placed against the outside of the frames. The young plants, when 3 or 4 in. high, are planted in patches of three or four, 8 in. asunder, in four longitudinal rows. The sashes are covered at night with straw mats, and opened whenever the weather is sufficiently mild. When 8 or 10 in. high the stems are inclined towards the back of the frame, a little earth being drawn to their base, and when the plants come into blossom the tops are pinched out above the third or fourth flower to force them into bearing. As soon as they begin to pod, the soil may have a gentle watering, whenever sufficiently warmed by the sun, but a too vigorous growth at an earlier period would be detrimental. Thus treated the plants bear pods fit for gathering in the first fortnight in April. A very convenient means of obtaining an early crop is to sow in 5-in. pots, a few seeds in each, the plants to be ultimately planted out on a warm border. Peas may also be obtained early if gently forced in frames, in the same way as kidney beans, the dwarfest varieties being preferable. For the very early peas the rows should range east and west, but for the main crops north and south. The average depth of the drills should be about 2 in. for small sorts, and a trifle more for the larger kinds. The drills should be made wide and flat at bottom so that the seeds may be better separated in sowing. The large sorts are the better for being sown 3 in. apart. Chopped furze may be advantageously scattered in the drill before covering in, to check the depredations of mice, and before levelling the surface the soil should be gently trodden down over the seeds. A good selection of sorts may be made from the following : — Early.— William Hurst; Chelsea Gem; Sutton's Bountiful and Excelsior; Gradus. Second Early. — Stratagem ; Telephone ; Telegraph ; Carter's Daisy ; Duke of York; Veitch's Autocrat. Late.— Veitch's Perfection; Ne Plus Ultra, the finest of all late peas, but a little delicate in cold wet soils and seasons ; British Queen ; Champion of England ; Duke of Albany. PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON (1811-1893), American clergyman and author, was born in Beverly, Massachusetts, on the i Qth of March 1811, and was descended from Lieut. Francis Peabody of St Albans, who emigrated to Massachusetts in 1635. He learned to read before he was three years old, entered Harvard College at the age of twelve, and graduated in 1826, with the single exception of Paul Dudley (class of 1690) the youngest graduate of Harvard. In 1833 he became assistant pastor of the South Parish (Unitarian) of Portsmouth, New Hampshire; the senior pastor died before Peabody had been preaching a month, and he succeeded to the charge of the church, which he held until 1860. In 1852-1860 he was proprietor and editor of the North American Review. He was preacher to PEABODY, E. P.— PEACE Harvard University and Plummer professor of Christian morals from 1860 to 1 88 1, and was professor emeritus from 1881 until his death in Boston, Massachusetts, on the loth of March 1893. On the walls of Appleton Chapel, Cambridge, U.S.A., is a bronze tablet to his memory. Besides many brief memoirs and articles, he wrote: Christianity the Religion of Nature (2 id ed., 1864), Lowell Institute Lectures; Reminiscences of European Travel (1868); A Manual of Moral Philosophy (1873); Christian Belief and Life (1875), and Harvard Reminiscences (1888). See the Memoir (Cambridge, 1896) by Edward J. Young. PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER (1804-1894), American educationist, was born at Billerica, Massachusetts, on the i6th of May 1804. Early in life she was assistant in A. Bronson Alcott's school in Boston, Mass., the best account of which is probably her Record of Mr Alcott's School (1835). She had been instructed in Greek by Emerson at Concord when she was eighteen years old. She became interested in the educational methods of Froebel, and in 1860 opened in Boston a small school resembling a kindergarten. In 1867 she visited Germany for the purpose of studying Froebel's methods. It was largely through her efforts that the first public kindergarten in the United States was established in Boston in 1870. She died at Jamaica Plain, Boston, on the 3rd of January 1894. She was the sister-in-law of Nathaniel Hawthorne and of Horace Mann. Among her publications are: Kindergarten in Italy (1872); Reminiscences of William Ellery Channing (1880); Lectures in the Training Schools for Kinder gar tners (1888); and Last Evening with Allslon, and other Papers (1886). PEABODY, GEORGE (1795-1869), American philanthropist, was descended from an old yeoman family of Hertfordshire, England, named Pabody or Pebody. He was born in the part of Danvers which is now Peabody, Mass., on the i8th of February 1795. When eleven years old he became apprentice at a grocery store. At the end of four years he became assistant to his brother, and a year afterwards to his uncle, who had a business in Georgetown, District of Columbia. After serving as a volunteer at Fort Warburton, Maryland, in the War of 1812, he became partner with Elisha Riggs in a dry goods store at George- town, Riggs furnishing the capital, while Peabody was manager. Through his energy and skill the business increased with astound- ing rapidity, and on the retirement of Riggs about 1830 Peabody found himself at the head of one of the largest mercantile con- cerns in the world. About 1837 he established himself in London as merchant and money-broker at Wanford Court, in the city, and in 1843 he withdrew from the American business. The number of his benefactions to public objects was very large. He gave £50,000 for educational purposes at Danvers; £200,000 to found and endow a scientific Institute in Baltimore; various sums to Harvard University; £700,000 to the trustees of the Peabody Educational Fund to promote education in the southern states; and £500,000 for the erection of dwelling-houses for the working-classes in London. He received from Queen Victoria the offer of a baronetcy, but declined it. In 1867 the United States Congress awarded him a special vote of thanks. He died in London on the 4th of November 1869; his body was carried to America in a British warship, and was buried in his native town. See the Life (Boston, 1870) by Phebe A. Hanaford. PEABODY, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, 2 m. N.W. of Salem. Pop. (1905) 13,098; (1910) 15,721. It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad. The township covers an area of 17 sq. m. Its principal village is also known as Peabody. It contains the Peabody institute (1852), a gift of George Peabody ; in 1909 the institute had a library of 43,200 vols., and in connexion with it is the Eben Dale Sutton reference library, containing 4100 vols. in 1909. In the institute is the portrait of Queen Victoria given by her to Mr Peabody. Among the places of interest in the township are the birthplace of George Peabody, the home of Rufus Choate (who lived here from 1823 to 1828), and the old burying-ground, where many soldiers of the War of Indepen- dence are buried; and the town has a Lexington monument, dedicated in 1835, and a soldiers' monument, dedicated in 1881. Manufacturing is the principal industry, and leather is the principal product; among other manufactures are shoes, gloves, glue and carriages. The value of the factory products in 1905 was $10,236,669, an increase of 47-4% over that for 1900, and of the total the leather product represented 77-3%. Peabody was originally a part of the township of Salem. In 1752 the district of Danvers was created, and in 1757 this district was made a separate township. In 1855 the township was divided into Danvers and South Danvers, and in 1868 the name of South Danvers was changed to Peabody, in honour of George Peabody. See Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877), by C. H. Webber and W. H. Nevins. PEACE, a river of western Canada. It rises in the Rocky Mountains near 55° N., and breaking through the mountains, flows N.E. into Slave River, near lake Athabasca. The district between 56° 40' and 60° N., and between 112° W. and the Rocky Mountains is usually known as the Peace River district. PEACE (Lat. pax; FT. paix; Ger. Friede), the contrary of war, conflict or turmoil, and the condition which follows their cessation. Its sense in international law is the condition of not being at war. The word is also used as an abridgment for a treaty of peace, in such cases as the Peace of Utrecht (1713) and the Peace of Amiens (1802). Introduction. — Peace until quite recently was merely the political condition which prevailed in the intervals between wars. It was a purely negative condition. Even Grotius, who reduced the tendencies existing in his time to a sort of orderly expression, addressed himself to the law of war as the positive part of international jurisprudence and dealt only with peace as its negative alternative. The very name of his historic treatise, De jure belli ac pads (1625), shows the subordination of peace to the main subject of war. In our own time peace has attained a higher status. It is now customary among writers on international law to give peace at any rate a volume to itself. Peace in fact has become a separate branch of the subject. The rise of arbitration as a method of settling international difficulties has carried it a step further, and now the Hague Peace Con- ventions have given pacific methods a standing apart from war. and the preservation of peace has become an object of direct political effort. The methods for ensuring such preservation are now almost as precise as the methods of war. However reluctant some states may be to bind themselves to any rules excluding recourse to brute force when diplomatic negotiations have failed, they have nevertheless unanimously at the Hague Conference of 1907 declared their " firm determination to co- operate in the maintenance of general peace " (la ferme volontt de concourir au mainlien de la paix gfnfrale)1, and their resolution " to favour with all their efforts the amicable settlement of international conflicts " (preamble to Peace Convention). The offer of mediation by independent powers is provided for (Peace Convention: art. 3), and it is specifically agreed that in matters of a " legal character " such as " questions of interpretation and application " of international conventions, arbitration is the " most efficacious and at the same time most equitable method " of settling differences which have not been solved by diplomacy (Peace Convention: art. 38). In the final act, the conference went farther in agreeing to the " principle of compulsory arbi- tration," declaring that " certain disputes, in particular those relating to the interpretation and application of the provisions of international agreements, are suitable (susceptible) to be submitted to compulsory arbitration without any restriction." These declarations were obviously a concession to the wide- spread feeling, among civilized nations, that peace is an object in itself, an international political condition requiring its code of methods and laws just as much as the domestic political conditions of nations require their codes of methods and laws. In other words peace among nations has now become, or is fast becoming, a positive subject of international regulation, while war is 1 This has been incorrectly rendered in the English official trans- lation as " the sincere desire to work for the maintenance of general peace." PEACE coming, among progressive peoples, to be regarded merely as an accidental disturbance of that harmony and concord among mankind which nations require for the fostering of their domestic welfare. Though the idea of preserving peace by general international regulation has had several exponents in the course of ages, no deliberate plan has ever yet been carried into effect. Indirectly, however, there have been many agencies which have operated towards this end. The earliest, known to history, is the Amphi- ctyonic Council (q.v.) which grew out of the common worship of the Hellenes. It was not so much a political as a religious body. " If it had any claim," says Freeman,1 " to the title of a general council of Greece, it was wholly in the sense in which we speak of general councils in modern Europe. The Amphictyonic Council represented Greece as an ecclesiastical synod repre- sented western Christendom. Its primary business was to regulate the concerns of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The Amphictyonic Council which met at Delphi was only the most famous of several bodies of the same kind." " It is easy, however," adds Freeman, " to understand how the religious functions of such a body might assume a political character. Thus the old Amphictyonic oath forbade certain extreme measures of hostility against any city sharing in the common Amphictyonic worship, and it was forbidden to raze any Amphi- ctyonic city or to cut off its water. As the only deliberative body in which most Greek communities were represented, its decisions were those of the bulk of the Hellenic people. It sank eventually into a mere political tool in the hands first of Thebes, and then under Philip of Macedonia." The so-called pax romana was merely peace within an empire governed from a central authority, the constituent parts of which were held together by a network of centralized authority. The feudal system again was a system of offence and defence, and its object was efficiency for war, not the organized regulation of peace. Yet it had elements of federation within the bonds of its hierarchy. The spiritual influence of the Church again was exerted to preserve relative peace among feudal princes. The " Truce of God " was established by the clergy (originally in Guyenne in 1031) to take advantage of holy days and festivals for the purpose of restricting the time available for bloodshed. The " grand design " of Henry IV. (France), which some historians regard merely as the fantastic idea of a visionary, was probably a scheme of his great minister Sully to avert by a federation the conflict which he probably foresaw would break out sooner or later between Catholic and Protestant Europe, and which, in fact, broke out some fifteen years later in the Thirty Years' War. The Holy Roman Empire itself was in some respects an agent for the preservation of peace among its constituent states. In the same way the federation of Swiss cantons, of the states of the North American Union and of the present German Empire have served as means of reducing the number of possible parties to war, and consequently that of its possible occasions. Not only the number of possible war-making states but also the territorial area over which war can be made has been reduced in recent times by the creation of neutralized states such as Switzerland, Belgium, Luxemburg and Norway, and areas such as the Congo basin, the American lakes and the Suez Canal. The " balance of power," which has played in the history of modern Europe such an important part, is inherent in the notion of the independence and stability of states. Just as in Italy the common weal of the different republics which were crowded within the limited area of the peninsula required that no one of them should become so powerful as to threaten the independence of the others, so western Europe had a similar danger to counteract. France, Spain and the Empire were competing with each other in power to the detriment of smaller states. Great Britain and the Netherlands, Prussia and Russia, 1 History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy (2nd ed., London, 1893), p. 97. had interests in the preservation of the status quo, and wars were waged and treaties concluded to adjust the strength of states in the common interest of preventing any one of them from obtain- ing undue predominance. Then came the break up of what remained of feudal Europe and a readjustment under Napoleon, which left the western world with five fairly balanced homo- geneous nations. These now took the place of the old hetero- geneous areas, governed by their respective sovereigns without reference to any idea of nationality or of national representation. The leading nations assumed the hegemony of the west, and in more recent times this combination has become known as the " concert of Europe." This concert of the great powers, as its name implies, in contradistinction to the " balance of power," was essentially a factor for the preservation of peace. For a century back it has played the part of an upper council in the management of Europe. In all matters affecting the Near East, it considers itself supreme. In matters of general interest it has frequently called conferences to which the minor states have been invited, such as the West African Conference in Berlin in 1885, and the Anti-Slavery Conference at Brussels in 1889- 1890, and the Conference of Algeciras in 1906. Meanwhile the concert has admitted among its members first in 1856 Turkey, later in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin the United States, and now undoubtedly Japan will expect to be included as a great power in this controlling body. The essential feature of the concert has been recognition of the advantage to all the great powers of common action in reference to territorial changes in the Near East, of meeting together as a council, in preference to unconcerted negotiation by the powers acting severally. A departure of more recent origin has been the calling together of the smaller powers for the settlement of matters of general administrative interest, conferences such as those which led to the conclusion of the conventions creating the Postal Union, the Copyright and Industrial Property Unions, &c. These conferences of all the powers serve in practice as a sort of common council in the community of states, just as the concert of the great powers acts as a kind of senate. We have thus the nucleus of that international parliament which idealist peacemakers have dreamt of since the time of Henry IV. 's " grand design." This brings us down to the greatest deliberate effort ever made to secure the peace of the world by a general convention. It was due to the initiative of the young tsar Nicolas II., who, in his famous rescript of the 24th of August 1898, stated that he thought that the then moment was " very favourable for seeking, by means of international discussion, the most effectual means of assuring to all peoples the benefits of a real and durable peace." " In the course of the last twenty years," added the rescript, " the preservation of peace had become an object of international policy." Economic crises, due in great part to the existing system of excessive armaments, were transforming armed peace into a crushing burden, which peoples had more and more difficulty in bearing. He therefore proposed that there should be an international conference for the purpose of focusing the efforts of all states which were " sincerely seeking to make the great idea of universal peace triumph over the elements of trouble and discord." The first conference was held in 1899, and another followed it in 1907: at the earlier one twenty-six powers were represented; at that of 1907 there were forty-four, this time practically the whole world. The conventions drawn up at the second conference were a deliberate codification of many branches of international law. By them a written law has been substituted for that unwritten law which nations had been wont to construe with a latitude more or less corre- sponding to their power. At the conference of 1899, moreover, a court of arbitration was instituted for the purpose of dealing judicially with such matters in dispute as the powers agreed to submit to it. In the interval between the two Hague Conferences, Great Britain and France concluded the first treaty applicable to future difficulties, as distinguished from the treaties which had preceded it, treaties which related in all cases to difficulties already PEACE existing and confined to them. This treaty made arbitration applicable to all matters not affecting " national honour or vital interests." Since then a network of similar treaties, adopted by different nations with each other and based on the Anglo- French model, has made reference to the Hague Court of Arbitra- tion practically compulsory for all matters which can be settled by an award of damages or do not affect any vital national interest. The third Hague Conference is timed to be held in 1917. Meanwhile a conference of the maritime powers was held in London in 1908-1909 for the elaboration of a code of international maritime law in time of war, to be applied in the international Court of Prize, which had been proposed in a convention signed ad referendum at the Hague Conference of 1907. A further development in the common efforts which have been made by different powers to assure the reign of justice and judicial methods among the states of the world was the pro- posal of Secretary Knox of the United States to insert in the instrument of ratification of the International Prize Court Convention (adopted at the Hague in 1897) a clause stating that the International Prize Court shall be invested with the duties and functions of a court of arbitral justice, such as recommended by the first Voeu of the Final Act of the con- ference. The object of this proposal was to give effect to the idea that the existing " permanent " court lacked the essential characteristics of national courts of justice in not being ready at all times to hear cases, and in needing to be specially con- stituted for every case submitted to it. The new court would be permanently in session at the Hague, the full panel of judges to assemble in ordinary or extraordinary session once a year. Thus, while armaments are increasing, and wars are being fought out in the press and in public discussion, the great powers are steadily working out a system of written law and establishing a judiciary to adjust their differences in accordance with it.1 The Current Grouping of Mankiitd and Nation-making. — In the consolidation of peace one of the most important factors is unquestionably the grouping of mankind in accordance with the final territorial and racial limitations of their apparent destiny. Language has played a vital part in the formation of Germany and Italy. The language question still disturbs the tranquillity of the Near East. The Hungarian government is regarded by the Slav, Ruman and German inhabitants of the monarchy as an oppressor for endeavouring to force every- body within the realm to learn the Magyar language. The " Young Turkish " government has problems to face which will be equally difficult, if it insists on endeavouring to institute centralized government in Turkey on the French model. Whereas during the igth century states were being cut out to suit the existing distribution of language, in the 2oth the tendency seems to be to avoid further rearrangement of boun- daries, and to complete the homogeneity, thus far attained, by the artificial method of forcing reluctant populations to adopt the language of the predominant or governing race. In the United States this artificial method has become a necessity, to prevent the upgrowth of alien communities, which might at some later date cause domestic trouble of a perilous character. For example, when a community of French Canadians, discontented with British rule, many years ago migrated and settled in Massachusetts, they found none of the tolerance they had been enjoying in Canada for their French schools and the French language they wished to preserve. In Alsace-Lorraine German-speaking immigrants are gradually displacing, under 1 Schemes of thinkers, like William Penn's European Parliament (1693); the Abb6 St Pierre's elaboration (c. 1700) of Henry IV.'s "grand design" (see supra); Jeremy Bentham's International Tribunal (1786-1789); Kant's Permanent Congress of Nations and Perpetual Peace (1796); John Stuart Mill's Federal Supreme Court; Seeley's, Bluntschli's, David Dudley Field's, Professor Leone Levi's, Sir Edmund Hornby's co-operative schemes for promoting law and order among nations, have all contributed to popularizing in different countries the idea of a federation of mankind for the preservation of peace. government encouragement, the French-speaking population. Poland is another case of the difficulty of managing a population which speaks a language not that of the governing majority, and Russia, in trying to solve one problem by absorbing Finland into the national system, is burdening herself with another which may work out in centuries of unrest, if not in domestic violence. Not very long ago Pan-Germans were paying much attention to the German settlers in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul, where large villages spoke nothing but German, and German, as the only language known on the spot, had become the tongue in which municipal business was transacted. The Brazilian government, in view of the danger to which such a state of things might give rise, followed the example of the United States in dealing with the language question. Thus while in the one case homogeneity of language within state boundaries seems to be one of the conditions making for peace, the avoidance of interference with a well-marked homo- geneous area like Finland would seem to contribute equally to the 'same end. Meanwhile the difficulties in the way of contemporary nation- making are fostered by many extraneous influences, as well as by dogged resistance of the races in question. Not the least important of these influences is the sentimental sympathy felt for those who are supposed to be deprived of the use of their mother-tongue, and who are subjected to the hardship of learning an alien one. The hardship inflicted on those who have to learn a second language is very easily exaggerated, though it is to be regretted that in the case of Hungary the second language is not .one more useful for international purposes. Contemporary Statecraft. — Nation-making has hitherto been more or less unconscious — the outcome of necessity, a natural growth due to the play of circumstance and events. But in our own age conscious statecraft is also at work, as in Canada, where the genius of statesmen is gradually endowing that dominion with all the attributes of independence and power. Australia has not learnt the lesson of Canada in vain. Whatever value may attach to the consolidation of the British Empire itself as a factor in spreading the peace which reigns within it, it is also a great contribution to the peace of the world that the British race should have founded practically independent states like the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, the South African Union and the Dominion of New Zealand. These self-governing colonies with their spheres of influence, with vast areas still unpeopled, have a future before them which is dissociated from the methods of an over-peopled Europe, and among them the preservation of peace is the direct object and condition of their progressive develop- ment. Like the United States, they have or will have their Monroe doctrine. Colonized by the steady industrial peoples of northern Europe, there is no danger of the turbulence of the industrially indolent but more passionate peoples of Central and South America. As in Europe, these northern peoples will hold the power which intelligent democracies are consciously absorbing, and the British faculty for statecraft is gradually welding new nations on the British model, without the obsolete traditions and without that human sediment which too frequently chokes the currents of national vitality in the older communities of Europe. Militarism. — It is often stated, as if it were incontrovertible, that conscription and large standing armies are a menace to peace, and yet, although throughout the civilized world, except in the British Empire and the United States, conscription is the system employed for the recruiting of the national forces of both defence and offence, few of these countries show any particular disposition to make war. The exceptional position of the United States, with a population about equal to that of the rest of the American continent, and of Great Britain, an island state but little exposed to military invasion, places both beyond absolute need of large standing armies, and renders an enlisting system feasible which would be quite inadequate for the recruitment of armies on the French or German scale. Demo- cratic progress on the Continent has, however, absorbed PEACE 7 conscription as a feature in the equalization of the citizen's rights and liabilities. Just as in Anglo-Saxon lands a national ideal is gradually materializing in the principle of the equalization of chances for all citizens, so in continental Europe, along with this equalization of chances, has still more rapidly developed the ideal of an equalization of obligations, which in turn leads to the claim for an enlargement of political rights co-extensive with the obligations. Thus universal conscription and universal suffrage tend to become in continental political development complementary conditions of the citizen's political being. In Germany, moreover, the military service is designed not only to make the recruit a good soldier, but also to give him a healthy physical, moral and mental training. German statesmen, under the powerful stimulus of the emperor William II., have, in the eyes of some cntics, carried this secondary object of conscript training to such excess as to be detrimental to military efficiency. To put it shortly, the Germans have taught their soldiers to think, and not merely to obey. The French, who naturally looked to German methods for inspiration, have come to apply them more particularly in the development of their cavalry and artillery, especially in that of the former, which has taken in the French army an ever higher place as its observing and thinking organ. Militarism on the Continent has thus become allied with the very factors which made for the reign of reason. No agitation for the development of national defences, no beating of drums to awaken the military spirit, no anti-foreign clamour or invasion panic, no parading of uniforms and futile clash of arms, are necessary to entice the groundling and the bumpkin into the service. In Germany patriotic waving of the flag, as a political method, is directed more especially to the strengthen- ing of imperial, as distinguished from local, patriotism. Where conscription has existed for any appreciable time it has sunk into the national economy, and men do their military service with as little concern as if it were a civil apprenticeship. As implied above, military training under conscription does not by any means necessarily tend to the promotion of the military spirit. In France, so far from taking this direction, it has resulted, under democratic government and universal suffrage, in a widespread abhorrence of war, and, in fact, has converted the French people from being the most militant into being the most pacific nation in Europe. The fact that every family throughout the land is a contributory to the military forces of the country has made peace a family, and hence a national, ideal. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is the logical conclusion of such comparisons that militarism only exists in countries where there are no citizen armies, and that, where there are citizen armies, they are one of the elements which make for permanent peace. Normal Nature of Peace. — America has been the pioneer of the view that peace is the normal condition of mankind, and that, when the causes of war arc eliminated, war ceases to have a raison d'etre. The objects and causes of war are of many kinds. War for fighting's sake, although in the popular mind there may be, during most wars, only the excitement and the emotion of a great gamble, has no conscious place among the motives of those who determine the destinies of peoples. Apart, however, from self-defence, the main causes of war are four: (i) The desire for territorial expansion, due to the overgrowth of population, and insufficiency of the available food-supply; if the necessary territory cannot be obtained by negotiation, conquest becomes the only alternative to emigration to foreign lands. (2) The prompting of national ambition or a desire to wipe out the record of a humiliating defeat. (3) Ambitious potentates again may seek to deflect popular tendencies into channels more satisfactory for their dynasty. (4) Nations, on the other hand, may grow jealous of each other's commercial success or material power. In many cases the apparent cause may be of a nobler character, but historians have seldom been content to accept the allegations of those who have claimed to carry on war from disinterested motives. On the American continent South and Central American states have had many wars, and the disastrous effects of them not only in retarding their own development, but in impair- ing their national credit, have led to earnest endeavours on the part of their leading statesmen to arrive at such an under- standing as will banish from their international polity all excuses for resorting to armed conflicts. In 1881 Mr Elaine, then U.S. secretary of state, addressed an instruction to the ministers of the United States of America accredited to the various Central and South American nations, directing them to invite the governments of these countries to par- ticipate in a congress, to be held at Washington in 1882, " for the purpose of considering and discussing the methods of preventing war between the nations of America." Owing to different circumstances the conference was delayed till the autumn of 1889. At this conference a plan of arbitration was drawn up, under which arbitration was made obligatory in all controversies whatever their origin, with the single exception that it should not apply where, in the judgment of any one of the nations involved in the controversy, its national independence was imperilled, and even in this case arbitration, though optional for the nation so judging, was to be obligatory for the adversary power. At the second International Confer- ence of American States, which sat in the city of Mexico from the 22nd of October 1901 to the 3ist of January 1902, the same subject was again discussed, and a scheme was finally adopted as a compromise which conferred authority on the government of Mexico to ascertain the views of the different governments represented in the conference, regarding the most advanced form in which a general arbitration convention could be drawn up that would meet with the approval and secure ratification by all the countries represented, and afterwards to prepare a plan for such a general treaty. The third Pan-American Conference was held in the months of July and August 1906, and was attended by the United States, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador and Uruguay. Only Haiti and Venezuela were absent. The conference, being held only a year before the time fixed for the second Hague Conference, applied itself mainly to the question of the extent to which force might be used for the collection of pecuniary claims against defaulting governments, and the forwarding of the principle of arbitration under the Hague Conventions. The possible causes of war on the American continent had meanwhile been considerably reduced. Different states had adjusted their frontiers, Great Britain in British Guiana had settled an out- standing question with Venezuela, France in French Guiana another with Brazil, Great Britain in Newfoundland had re- moved time-honoured grievances with France, Great Britain in Canada others with the United States of America, and now the most difficult kind of international questions which can arise, so far as the American continent is concerned, have been removed from among existing dangers to peace. Among the Southern Republics Argentina and Chile concluded in 1902 a treaty of arbitration, for the settlement of all difficulties without dis- tinction, combined with a disarmament agreement of the same date, to which more ample reference will be made hereafter. Thus in America progress is being rapidly made towards the realization of the idea that war can be super- annuated by elimination of its causes and the development of positive methods for the preservation of peace (see PAN- AMERICAN CONFERENCES). With the American precedent to inspire him, the emperor Nicolas II. of Russia in 1898 issued his invitation to the powers to hold a similar conference of European states, with a more or less similar object. In 1899 twenty-six states met at the Hague and began the work, which was continued at the second con- ference in 1907, and furthered by the Maritime Conference of London of 1908-1909. The creation of the Hague Court and of a code of law to be applied by it have further eliminated causes of difference. These efforts in the two hemispheres are based on the idea 8 PEACE that international differences can be adjusted without war, where the parties are honestly aggrieved. With this adjust- ment of existing cases the number of possible pretexts for the employment of force is being rapidly diminished. Peace Procedure under the Hague Conventions. — The Hague Peace Convention of 1907, which re-enacts the essential parts of the earlier one of 1899, sets out five ways of adjusting inter- national conflicts without recourse to war. Firstly, the signatory powers have undertaken to use their best efforts to ensure the pacific settlement of international difficulties. This is a general declaration of intention to lend themselves to the peaceable adjustment of difficulties and employ their diplomacy to this end. Secondly, in case of serious disagreement, diplomacy having failed, they agree to have recourse, as far as circumstances allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly powers. Thirdly, the signatory powers agree that it shall not be regarded as an unfriendly act if one or more powers, strangers to the dispute, on their own initiative offer their good offices or mediation to the states in disagreement, or even during hostili- ties, if war has already broken out. Fourthly, the convention recommends that in disputes of an international nature, involving neither national honour nor vital interests, and arising from a difference of opinion on points of fact, the parties who have not been able to come to an agreement by means of diplomacy should institute an international commission of inquiry to facilitate a solution of these disputes by an investigation of the facts. Lastly, the high contracting parties have agreed that in questions of a legal nature, and especially in interpretation or application of international conventions, arbitration is recog- nized as the most effective, and at the same time the most equitable, means of settling disputes which diplomacy has failed to adjust. Down to 1910 no suggestion of mediation had actually been carried out, but a number of cases of arbitration had been tried by the Hague Court, created by the Hague Peace Convention (see ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL), and one case, viz. that of the Dogger Bank incident, was submitted to a commission of inquiry, which sat in January 1905. ' If Secretary Knox's proposal (see supra) to convert the International Prize Court into a permanently sitting court of arbitration is adopted, a detailed procedure and jurisprudence will no doubt grow out of a continuity which is lacking in the present system, under which the court is recruited from a large panel for each special case. Secretary Knox's idea, as expressed in the identical circular note addressed by him on the i8th of October 1909 to the powers, was to invest the International Prize Court, proposed to be established by the convention of the i8th of October 1907, with the functions of a " court of arbitral justice." The court contemplated by the convention was a court of appeal for reviewing prize decisions of national courts both as to facts and as to the law applied, and, in the exercise of its judicial discretion, not only to confirm in whole or in part the national decision or the contrary, but also to certify its judgment to the national court for enforcement thereof. The adoption of this jurisdiction would have involved a revision of the judicial systems of probably every country accepting it. The United States government therefore proposed that the signatories should insert in the act of ratification a reservation to the effect that resort to the International Prize Court, in respect of decisions of their national tribunals, should take the form of a direct claim for compensation. This in any case would remove the United States' constitutional objection to the establishment of the proposed court. In connexion with this enabling clause Mr 'The procedure adopted by the commission was afterwards incorporated in the convention of 1907. Under the rules adopted, the examination of witnesses is conducted by the president in accordance with the system prevailing in most continental countries ; members of the commission may only put questions to witnesses for the eliciting of further information; and they may not interrupt the witness when he is in course of making his statement, but they may ask the president to put any additional questions. This seems likely to become the procedure also in cases before the Hague Court, where witnesses are examined. Secretary Knox also proposed that a further enabling clause be inserted providing that the International Court of Prize be competent to accept jurisdiction in all matters, arising between signatories, submitted to it, the Court to sit at fixed periods every year and to be composed according to the panel which was drawn up at the Hague. This court, which the American government proposed to call a " Court of Arbitral Justice," would take the place of that which it was proposed to institute under Vau No. i of the Final Act of the conference of 1907. The intention of the Hague draft annexed to the Vceu was to create a permanent court as distinguished from that established in 1899, which, though called permanent, was not so, having to be put together ad hoc as the occasion arose. The new court, if adopted, would hold regular and continuous sessions, consist of the same judges, and pay due heed to the precedents created by its prior decisions. The two courts would have separate spheres of activity, and litigants would practically have the option of submitting their differences to a judicial court which would regard itself as being bound by the letter of the law and by judicial methods or to a special court created ad hoc with a purely arbitrative character. The Place of Diplomacy. — The utility of the diplomatic service has been considerably diminished through the increasing efficiency of the public press as a medium of information. It is not too much to say that at the present day an experienced journalist, in a place like Vienna or Berlin, can give more information to an ambassador than the ambassador can give to him. It is even true to say that an ambassador is practically debarred from coming into actual touch with currents of public feeling and the passing influences which, in this age of democracy, determine the course of events in the political life of peoples. The diplomatist has therefore lost one of his chief functions as an informant of the accrediting government. The other chief function of diplomacy is to be the courteous medium of conveying messages from one government to another. Even this function is losing its significance. The ciphered telegram leaves little discretion to the envoy, and written notes are exchanged which are practically a mere transcription of the deciphered telegram or draft prepared at the instructing foreign office. Neverthe- less, the personality of an ambassador can play a great part, if he possesses charm, breadth of understanding and interest in the social, intellectual and industrial life of the country to which he is accredited. There are several instances of such men in Europe and America, but they are so rare that some reformers consider them as hardly justifying the large expenditure necessary to maintain the existing system. On the other hand, the utility of the consular service has concurrently increased. Adminis- trative indifference to the eminently useful officials forming the service has led, in many cases, to diminishing instead of increas- ing their number and their salaries, but it is obvious that the extension of their duties and a corresponding raising of their status would be much more in accordance with the national interest. The French, with that practical sense which distin- guishes so much of their recent administrative work, have connected the two services. A consul-general can be promoted to a diplomatic post, and take with him to his higher office the practical experience a consul gains of the material interests of the country to which he belongs. There is thus still good work for diplomacy to do, and if, in the selection of diplomatic representatives, states followed on the one hand the above-mentioned French example, and on the other hand the American example of selecting for the heads of diplomatic missions men who are not necessarily de la carriere, diplomacy might obtain a new lease of activity, and become once more an extremely useful part of the administrative machinery by which states maintain good business relations as well as friendly political intercourse with one another. International Regulation by Treaty. — It seems a truism to say that among the agencies which most effectively tend to the preservation of peace are treaties which regulate the relations of states in their intercourse with other states. Such treaties, however, are of quite recent origin. The first of a comprehensive PEACE character was the general act adopted at the South African Conference at Berlin in 1885, which laid down the principle, which has since become of still wider application, that " any Power which henceforth takes possession of a tract of land on the coast of the African continent outside of its present pos- sessions or which, being hitherto without such possessions, shall acquire them . . . shall accompany the act relating to it with a notification thereof, addressed to the other Signatory Powers of the present act, in order to enable them, if need be, to make good any claims of their own," and, furthermore, that " the Signatory Powers of the present act recognize the obligation to ensure the establishment of authority in the regions occupied by them on the coasts of the African continent sufficient to protect existing rights, and, as the case may be, freedom of trade and transit under the conditions agreed upon." Under these articles occupation of unoccupied territory to be legal had to be effective. This led to the creation and determination of spheres of influence. By fixing the areas of these spheres of influence rival states in western and central Africa avoided conflicts and preserved their rights until they were able to take a more effective part in their development. The idea of " spheres of influence " has in turn been applied even to more settled and civilized countries, such as China and Persia. Other cases of regulation by treaty are certain contractual engagements which have been entered into by states for the preservation of the status quo of other states and territories. The Anglo- Japanese Treaty of the i2th of August 1905 sets out its objects as follows: — a. " The consolidation and maintenance of the general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and India; 6. " The preservation of the common interests of the Powers in China, of insuring the independence and the integrity of the Chinese empire, and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce ana industry of all nations in China ; c. " The maintenance of the territorial rights of the high con- tracting parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and the defence of their special interests in such regions." It is a treaty for the maintenance of the status quo in certain parts of Asia in which the parties to it have dominant interests. The same principle underlies different other self-denying arrange- ments and declarations made by the powers with reference to Chinese integrity. The Treaty of Algeciras is essentially a generalization of the Franco-German agreement of the 28th of September 1905. By it all the powers represented agree to respect the territorial integrity of Morocco, subject to a possible intervention limited to the purpose of preserving order within it. Differing from these general acts in not being contractual is the Monroe doctrine, which is a policy of ensuring the mainte- nance of the territorial status quo as regards non-American powers throughout the American continent. If necessary, the leading republics of South and Central America would no doubt, however, further ensure respect for it by treaty. With these precedents and current instances of tendency to place the territorial relations of the powers on a permanent footing of respect for the existing status quo, it seems possible to go beyond the mere enunciation of principles, and to take a step towards their practical realization, by agreeing to respect the territorial status quo throughout still larger tracts of the world, neutralize them, and thus place them outside the area of possible wars. A third contractual method of avoiding conflicts of interest has been the signing of agreements for the maintenance of the " open-door." The discussion on the question of the " open- door " in connexion with the Morocco difficulty was useful in calling general public attention once more to the undesir- ability of allowing any single power to exclude other nations from trading on territory over which it may be called to exercise a protectorate, especially if equality of treatment of foreign trade had been practised by the authority ruling over the territory in question before its practical annexation under the name of protectorate. The habitable parts of the world are a limited area, exclusion from any of which is a diminution of the available markets of the nations excluded. Every power, is, therefore, rightfully interested in the prevention of such exclusion. The United States government in 1899 called attention to the subject as regards China, without, however, going into any question of principle. It thought that danger of international irritation might be removed by each power making a declaration respecting the " sphere of interest " in China to which it laid claim. Lord Salisbury informed Mr Choate that H.M. govern- ment were prepared to make a declaration in the sense desired. All the powers concerned eventually subscribed to the declara- tion proposed by the United States government. The principle of the " open-door " in fact has already been consistently applied in connexion with certain non-European areas. As these areas are practically the only areas which of late years have come within the scope of European regulation, the time seems to be approaching when the principle may be declared to be of general application. From the point of view of diminishing the possible causes of conflict among nations, the adoption of this principle as one of international contractual obligation would be of great utility. While putting an end to the injustice of exclusion, it would obviously reduce the danger of nations seeking colonial aggrandizement with a view to im- posing exclusion, and thus one of the chief temptations to colonial adventure would be eliminated. In the fourth place, there is the self-denying ordinance against employment of arms for the enforcement of contractual obliga- tions adopted at the Hague Conference of 1907. Under it the high contracting powers have agreed not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contractual debts claimed from the government of one country by the government of another country as due to its subjects. The only qualification admitted under the new convention is that it shall not apply when the debtor-state refuses or leaves unanswered an offer of arbitration, or in case of acceptance renders the settlement of the terms of arbitration impossible, or, after arbitration, fails to comply with the award. The theory on which this convention is based is known as the Drago theory, having taken a practical form during the administration of Dr L. M. Drago, when he filled the post of Argentine minister of foreign affairs. The doctrine, however, is not new, having already been enunciated a century before by Alexander Hamilton and reiterated since then by several American statesmen, such as Albert Gallatin, William L. Marcy and F. T. Frelinghuysen, as the view prevailing at Washington during their respective periods of office. Limitations of Disarmament. — Disarmament, or to speak more correctly, the contractual limitation of armaments, has become, of late years, as much an economic as a humanitarian peace-securing object. " The maintenance of universal peace and a possible reduction of the excessive armaments which weigh upon all nations, represent, in the present condition of affairs all over the world, the ideal towards which the efforts of all governments should be directed," were the opening words of the Note which the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Mouraviev, handed to the diplomatic representatives of the different powers suggesting the first Hague Conference. " The ever-increasing financial burdens," the Note went on, " strike at the root of public prosperity. The physical and intellectual forces of the people, labour and capital, are diverted for the greater part from their natural application and wasted unproductively. Hundreds of millions are spent in acquiring terrible engines of destruction, which are regarded to-day as the latest inventions of science, but are destined to-morrow to be rendered obsolete by some new discovery. National culture, economic progress and the production of wealth are either paralysed or developed in a wrong direction. Therefore the more the armaments of each power increase the less they answer to the objects aimed at by the governments. Economic dis- turbances are caused in great measure by this system of excessive armaments; and the constant danger involved in this accumula- tion of war material renders the armed peace of to-day a crushing IO PEACE burden more and more difficult for nations to bear. It conse- quently seems evident that if this situation be prolonged it will inevitably result in the very disaster it is sought to avoid, and the thought of the horrors of which makes every humane mind shudder. It is the supreme duty, therefore, of all states to place some limit on these increasing armaments, and find some means of averting the calamities which threaten the whole world." A further Note submitting the programme proposed gave more precision to this item, which thereupon took the following form: " An understanding not to increase for a fixed period the present effectives of the armed military and naval forces, and at the same time not to increase the budgets pertaining thereto; and a preliminary examination of the means by which even a reduction might be effected in future in the forces and budgets above mentioned." When the subject came on for discussion at the conference the German military delegate stated his view that the question of effectives could not be discussed by itself, as there were many others to which it was in some measure subordinated, such, for instance, as the length of service, the number of cadres whether existing in peace or made ready for war, the amount of training received by reserves, the situation of the country itself, its railway system, and the number and position of its fortresses. In a modern army all these questions went together, and national defence included them all. In Germany, moreover, the military system " did not provide for fixed numbers annually, but increased the numbers each year." After many expressions of regret at finding no method of giving effect to the. proposal, the commission confined itself to recording its opinion that " a further examination of the question by the Powers would prove a great benefit to humanity." The Conference, however, were unanimous in the adoption of the following resolution: — " The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of military budgets, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral welfare of mankind;" and it passed also the following vceu : — " That governments, taking into account the proposals made at the Conference, should examine the possibility of an understanding concerning the limitation of military and naval armaments, and of war budgets." The general public, more particularly in Great Britain and France, shows an ever-increasing distrust of the rapid growth of armaments as a possible cause of grave economic troubles. A high state of military preparedness of any one state obliges all the others to endeavour to be prepared on the same level. This process of emulation, very appropriately called by the late Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman " a policy of huge armaments," unfortunately is a policy from which it is impossible for any country to extricate itself without the co-operation, direct or indirect, of other nations. The subject was brought forward in view of the second Hague Conference in both the French and Italian parliaments. The declaration of the French government stated that: — " France hoped that other nations would grow, as she had done, more and more attached to solutions of international difficulties based upon the respect of justice, and she trusted that the progress of universal opinion in this direction would enable nations to regard the lessening of the present military budgets, declared by the states represented at the Hague to be greatly desirable for the benefit of the material and moral state of humanity, as a practical possibility." (Chamber of Deputies, June 12, 1906.) In the Italian Chamber of Deputies, an interpellation was addressed to the minister of foreign affairs about the same time asking " whether the Government had knowledge of the motion approved by the British House of Commons, and of the under- taking of the British government that, in the programme of the coming Hague Conference, the question of the reduction of armaments should be inserted, and in what spirit the Italian government had taken or proposed to take the propositions of the British government, and what instructions it would give to the Italian representatives at the conference." The minister of foreign affairs, M Tittoni, in reply expressed the adhesion of the Italian government to the humanitarian ideas which had met with such enthusiasm in the historic House of Parliament at Westminster. " I have always believed," he said, " that, as far as we are concerned, it would be a national crime to weaken our own armaments while we are surrounded by strongly armed European nations who look upon the improve- ment of armaments as a guarantee of peace. Nevertheless, I should consider it a crime against humanity not to sincerely co-operate in an initiative having for object a simultaneous reduction of armaments of the great powers. Italian practice has always aimed at the maintenance of peace; therefore, I am happy to be able to say that our delegates at the coming Hague Conference will be instructed to further the English initiative." The only existing case of contractual reduction of armaments is that of the Disarmament Agreement of the 28th of May igoa between the Chilian and Argentine republics, adopted " owing to the initiative and good offices of His Britannic Majesty," which is as follows: — Art. I. — In order to remove all cause of fear and distrust between the two countries, the governments of Chile and of the Argentine Republic agree not to take possession of the warships which they are having built, or for the present to make any other acquisitions. The two governments furthermore agree to reduce their respective fleets, according to an arrangement establishing a reasonable proportion between the two fleets. This reduction to be made within one year from the date at which the present agreement shall be ratified. Art. II. — The two governments respectively promise not to increase their maritime armaments during five years, unless the one who shall wish to increase them shall give the other eighteen months' notice in advance. This agreement does not include any armaments for the purpose of protecting the shore and ports, and each party will be at liberty to acquire any vessels (maquina flotante) intended for the protection thereof, such as submarines, &c. Art. III. — The reductions (i.e. ships disposed of) resulting from this agreement will not be parted with to countries having any dispute with either of the two contracting parties. Art. IV. — In order to facilitate the transfer of the pending orders the two governments agree to increase by two months the time stipulated for the beginning of the construction of the respective ships. They will give instructions accordingly. An agreement of this kind is obviously more feasible as among states whose navies are small and of comparatively recent origin than among states whose navies are composed of vessels of many and widely different ages. It may be difficult to agree in the latter case on a principle for assessment of the proportionate fighting value of the respective fleets. The break-up or sale of obsolete warships is a diminution of the paper effective of a navy, and their purchase by another state a paper increase of theirs. Even comparatively slight differences in the ages of ships may make great differences in their fighting value. It would be a hard, though probably not insurmountable, task to establish " a reasonable proportion," such as provided for in Art. II. of the Chile-Argentina Agreement, as between large and old-standing navies like those of Europe. On the other hand, as regards military power, it seems some- times forgotten in the discussion of the question of armaments, that the conditions of the present age differ entirely from those of the time of the Napoleonic wars. With conscription a national army corresponds more or less numerically to the proportion of males in the national population. Great Britain, without con- scription, has no means of raising troops in any such proportion. Thus, so long as she refrains from adopting conscription, she can only carry on defensive warfare. The object of her navy is therefore necessarily defensive, unless it act in co-operation with a foreign conscript army. As there are practically only three great armies available for the purpose of a war of aggression, the negotiation of contingent arrangements does not seem too remote for achievement by skilful and really well-meaning negotiation. The Hague Conference of 1907, owing to difficulties which occurred in the course of the preliminary negotiations for the conference, did not deal with the subject. Principle and Capabilities of Neutralization. — Among the different methods which have grown up practically in our own PEACE 1 1 time for the exclusion of war is neutralization. We have been dealing hitherto with the elimination of the causes of war; neutralization is a curtailment of the areas of war and of the factors in warfare, of territory on the one hand and states on the other. The neutralization of territory belonging to states which are not otherwise neutralized includes the neutralization of waterways such as the Suez and Panama canals. Under the General Act of Berlin of the 26th of February 1885, " in case a power exercising rights of sovereignty or protec- torate " in any of the regions forming the basin of the Congo and its affluents, including Lake Tanganyika, and extending away to the Indian Ocean, should be involved in a war, the parties to the General Act bound themselves to lend their good offices in order that the territories belonging to this power be placed during the war " under the rule of neutrality and considered as belonging to a neutral state, the belligerents thenceforth abstaining from extending hostilities to the territories thus neutralized, and from using them as a basis for warlike operations " (art. 2). Neutralization is not necessarily of general application. Thus two states can agree to neutralize specific territory as between them. For example between Costa Rica and Nicaragua by a treaty of the i5th of April 1858 the parties agreed that " on no account whatever, not even in case of war," should " any act of hostility be allowed between them in the port of San Juan del Norte nor on the river of that name nor on Lake Nicaragua " (art. 2).1 Again, the Straits of Magellan are neutralized as between Argentina and Chile under a treaty of the 23rd of July 1881. Article 5 provides that they are " neutralized for ever and their free navigation is guaranteed to the flags of all nations. To ensure this neutrality and freedom it is agreed that no fortifica- tions or military defences which might interfere therewith shall be erected." Luxemburg was declared by the Treaty of London of the nth of May 1867 (art. i) to be a perpetually neutral state under the guarantee of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Swit- zerland, by a declaration confirmed by the Treaty of Vienna, of 1815 (art. 84), likewise enjoys perpetual neutrality. And now Norway has placed herself under a neutral regime of a similar character. A neutralized state does not mean a state which is forbidden to have fortifications or an army; in this it differs from neu- tralized territory of a state not otherwise neutralized. Thus Belgium, which is a neutralized state, not only has an army but has fortifications, although by the treaties of 1831 and 1839 she was recognized as a " perpetually neutral state, bound to observe the same neutrality with reference to other states." Of waterways, international rivers have been the chief subject of neutralization. It has long been an established principle in the intercourse of nations, that where the navigable parts of a river pass through different countries their navigation is free to all. The rivers Scheldt and Meuse were opened up in this way to riparian states by a decree of the French Convention of the i6th of November 1792. By the treaty of Vienna of the gth of June 1815, the powers whose territories were separated or traversed by the same navigable river, undertook to regulate by common consent all that regarded its navigation, and for this purpose to name commissioners who should adopt as the bases of their proceedings the principle that the navigation of such rivers along their whole course " from the point where each of them becomes navigable to its mouth, shall be entirely free, and shall not in respect of commerce be prohibited to anyone." The only case in Europe in which this internationalization of rivers has been maintained is that of the Danube. On the other hand neutralization has made progress in respect of waterways, 1 Under the treaty of the 2gth of March 1864, the courts of Great Britain, France and Russia in their character of guaranteeing powers of Greece declared with the assent of the courts of Austria and Prussia that the islands of Corfu and Paxo as well as their dependencies should, after their union to the Hellenic kingdom, enjoy the advantages of perpetual neutrality, and the king of the Hellenes undertook on his part to maintain such neutrality. (Art. 2). natural as well as artificial. Thus the Bosporus and Dardanelles under the Treaty of Paris of 1856 and by the Treaty of London 1871 were and remain closed to the passage of foreign armed vessels in time of war, though the Porte may permit their passage in time of peace in certain cases. The Suez and the Panama canals have been permanently neutralized, the former by a convention among the great powers, and the latter by a treaty between Great Britain and the United States. Alongside this neutralization has grown up a collateral institution, the purpose of which is in some respects similar. We refer to "buffer" zones. "Buffer" zones are of quite recent origin as a political creation,2 i.e. where their object is to establish upon the territory of two contiguous states a strip or zone on either side of the frontier which the respective states agree to regard as neutral, on which the parties undertake to erect no fortifications, and maintain no armed forces but those necessary to enforce the ordinary respect of government. The word " neutral " does not correctly describe the character of the zone. It is not neutral in the sense of being recognized as such by any third state, and it necessarily ceases to be neutral in case of war between the states concerned. The word " buffer " comes nearest to the object, but even this term implies more than is meant. Between Spain and Morocco a treaty of the 5th of March 1894 established between the Camp of Melilla and Moroccan territory a zone within which no new roads were to be made, no herds to be allowed to graze, no land to be cultivated, no troops of either party, or even private persons carrying arms, to set foot, no inhabitants to dwell, and all habitations to be razed. The zone between Burma and Siam, established by an agreement between Great Britain and France dated the I5th of January 1896, declared " the portion of Siam which is comprised within the drainage basin of the Menam, and of the coast streams . of a corresponding longitude," neutral as between them. Within this area the two powers undertook not to " operate by their military or naval forces, except in so far as they might do so in concert for any purpose requisite for maintaining the indepen- dence of Siam." They also undertook not to acquire within that area any privileges or commercial facilities not extended to both of them. " Buffer " zones might fulfil a useful purpose even in Europe. They would obviously react against the feeling known as " esprit de frontiere," and diminish the danger of incidents arising out of this feeling, and might attenuate the rivalry of neighbouring counter-armaments. These considerations no doubt led the Swedish and Norwegian governments, in their settlement of September 1905, to establish a " buffer " zone of 15 kilometres on either side of the frontier between the two states in question. Within these 30 kilometres all existing fortresses are dismantled,3 no new ones are to be erected, and no armed troops to be maintained; any question between the two states relative to the provisions respecting the " buffer " zone to be decided by arbitration. A rather special case of neutralization of a territorial area 2 The institution of " buffer " zones in a more strictly correct sense of the term is of very ancient origin. One is mentioned in the annals of China two centuries before our era, between the terri- tories of the Huns in the west and those of the Tunguses in the east — a vast area of some 300. to 400 m., on the opposite margin of which the two peoples kept watch. In Europe, bands of territory from time to time have been made desert to better establish sepa- ration. The Romans and Germans protected themselves in this way. In the middle ages the Teutonic Order established a frontier belt on the side of Lithuania. Later, Austria dealt in the same way in her policy in regard to Turkey in the organization of a " military frontier." See Nys, Droit International (Brussels, 1904), i. 418. 3 It was stipulated that the dismantling should be controlled by a technical commission of three officers of foreign nationality, to be chosen, one by each of the contracting powers and the third by the two officers thus appointed, or, in default of an agreement on their part, by the president of the Swiss Confederation. The dismantling of the forts in question has now been carried out. The Commission was composed on the part of Sweden of an engineer on the staff of the Austrian afrmy, and on the part of Norway of a colonel in the German army, and, by agreement of these, of a colonel in the Dutch army. 12 PEACE is that of the practical neutralization of the Great Lakes in America. In 1817, at the instance of John Quincy Adams, the United States and Great Britain entered into a compact wherebj the Great Lakes, and the waterways from them to the ocean by the St Lawrence river, which divide the United States from th< Dominion of Canada, were practically excluded from any possible hostilities. Through a simple agreement, " conditions which make for peace and prosperity, and the absence of those which so often lead to disastrous war, have for nearly a century reigned over these great inland waters, whose commerce, con- ducted for the benefit of the states and nations of Europe anc America, rivals that which passes through the Suez Canal or over the Mediterranean Sea, and with a result foreshadowed in these words of President Monroe in his communication to the Senate commending the proposed agreement: ' In order to avoid collision and save expense.' Forts which had been erected at salient points on either side of the lakes and rivers dividing the United States from Canada, which but for this agreement would, in the natural course of events, have been enlarged, increasingly garrisoned, and provided with modern implements of destruction, at large expense, have remained substantially as when the agreement was made, or now constitute but inter- esting or picturesque ruins; and the great cost of constructing and maintaining, through a long series of years, naval armaments of ever-increasing power has been avoided." 1 As we have already said, the Monroe doctrine is a means of excluding European warfare from the American continent and therefore is in the nature of a form of neutralization. A sort of Monroe doctrine is growing into popular favour also throughout the Australian Commonwealth, where it is felt that a continent so far removed from European rivalries ought not to be exposed to complications on account of them. From time to time questions of adding to existing neutralized areas are raised. When it was announced in 1905 that a British fleet was about to manoeuvre in the Baltic Sea, several German newspapers suggested that Germany should combine with other Baltic powers to assure its neutralization.2 No official observa- tion on the subject, however, was made on the part of any Baltic power. The Baltic is still an open sea for the whole world, without restriction of any kind; and even hostilities between any two non-Baltic powers could be carried on in the Baltic, as elsewhere on the high sea, under the existing practice. When the Dogger Bank incident occurred, the possibility of operations of war being carried on within a few miles of British home ports, and amid the busy traffic of the North Sea, was brought vividly home to British minds. A movement set on foot at the instance of Edward Atkinson, the well-known Boston economist, and warmly supported by the Massachusetts State Board of Trade, seeks to establish by treaty neutral zones from the ports of North America to the ports of Great Britain and Ireland and the continent of Europe, within which zones steamship and sailing vessels in the conduct of lawful commerce should be free to pass without seizure or interruption in time of war. There is however no precedent of neutralization of any such area of the high sea, and international rivers, ocean canals and neutralized states are obviously no criterion in discussing a proposal to neutralize a strip of the ocean, which may be defined accurately enough on the map and which skilful navigators could approximately determine, but which might be violated without any practical means of detection by a belligerent commander whenever he misread, or it suited him to misread, his bearings. Connected with the principle of neutralization is that of guaranteeing the integrity of states. Several such guarantees have been given in quite recent times. In November 1907 a treaty was concluded between France, Germany, Great Britain and Russia on the one part and Norway on the other, for the maintenance of the integrity of Norway. This treaty differed 1 Memoir of Massachusetts State Board of Trade (Feb. 13, 1905). This was merely reviving an idea which had come and gone many times before. See Barclay, Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy (1907). from the older one of 1855 in which France and Great Britain guaranteed the integrity of Norway and Sweden, in the fact that whereas the older treaty was for the protection of these two states against Russia, the new treaty is intended, if it is to serve at all as a protection against invasion, to protect Norway against Sweden. Another such guarantee of a vaguer character is that which the North Sea powers recently entered into for the maintenance of the status quo of their respective North Sea territories; and the similar one entered into by the Mediterranean powers for the same objects in the Mediterranean. Lastly in the same order of ideas Austria-Hungary and Russia are said to have concluded an arrangement between them for the maintenance of the status quo in the Balkans. The future has no doubt still other extensions of the principle of neutralization in store for us. Not the least interesting of existing possibilities is the limitation of the area of visit and search in time of war itself, as a restriction of belligerent right. It seems contrary to common sense that neutral ships should be exposed to being detained, taken out of their course, and overhauled on mere suspicion of carrying contraband, when they are so far from the seat of war that there can be no presumption as to their destination. Neutrals have a right to carry on their ordinary business unmolested in so far as they do nothing to assist either belligerent. When they are beyond a certain distance from the seat of war it seems reasonable that the presumption that they are merely carrying on their legitimate business should be considered absolute. Such a limitation of the area of hostilities is not only feasible, but it was actually put in practice by the British government during the Boer War.3 In the course of the Russo-Japanese War the question came up again, being raised this time by Great Britain. Lord Lans- downe called the attention of the Russian foreign office to the extreme inconvenience to neutral commerce of the Russian search for contraband not only in the proximity of the scene of war, but over all the world, and especially at places at which neutral commerce could be most effectually intercepted. H.M. Govern- ment had become aware that a large addition was likely to be made to the number of Russian cruisers employed in this manner, and they had, therefore, to contemplate the possibility that such vessels would shortly be found patrolling the narrow seas which lie on the route from Great Britain to Japan in such a manner as to render it virtually impossible for any neutral vessel to escape their attention. The effect of such interference with neutral trade, he said, would be disastrous to legitimate commerce passing from a British port in the United Kingdom :o a British port in the Far East. The British government lad no desire to place obstacles in the way of a belligerent desiring to take reasonable precautions in order to prevent the enemy from receiving supplies, but they insisted that the right of taking such precautions did not imply a " consequential right o intercept at any distance from the scene of operations and without proof that the supplies in question were really destined or use of the enemy's forces, any articles which that belligerent might determine to regard as contraband of war." 1 In January 1900 it was reported that the British government lad issued instructions to British naval commanders not to stop >r search German merchant vessels at any places not in the vicinity if the seat of war. There is no proper statement of the British xjsition on this subject, the only official information having been ;iven by the German chancellor in a speech to the Reichstag. According to this information, the area was ultimately limited as lorth of Aden, and afterwards it was agreed that the immunity rom search should be extended to all places beyond a distance rom the seat of war equal to the distance from it of Aden. This was substantially correct, though the telegrams sent by the Admiralty an hardly be said to have fixed any precise area. As a fact, the ommanders-in-chief on the East Indies and Cape of Good Hope tations were instructed that in consequence of the great practical lifficulty of proving — at ports so remote from the scene of war perations as Aden and Perim — the real destination of contraband if war carried by vessels visiting those parts, directions were to be [iven to the officers concerned to cease to search such vessels, and o merely report to the commander-in-chief at the Cape the names )f ships suspected of carrying contraband, and the date of clearance. PEACE The position thus assumed is not clear. On the one hand the British claim did not, it is seen, go the length of the restriction Great Britain consented to place on her own right of search during the Boer War, seeming to apply only to the case of ships carrying conditional contraband. On the other, the complaint is based on the " interference " with neutral trade, which means the stoppage and search of vessels to ascertain whether they have contraband of any kind on board or not. It must not be forgotten in this connexion that restriction of the rights of the belligerent necessarily entails extension of the duties of the neutral. The belligerent has an unquestioned right to " interfere " with all neutral vessels navigating in the direction of the seat of war, for the purpose of ascertaining whether they are carrying any kind of contraband or not. Under the Declaration of London of the 26th of February 1909 it is provided under arts. 32 and 35 that a ship's papers are conclusive proof as to the voyage on which she is engaged unless she is clearly out of the course indicated by her papers and is unable to give adequate reasons to justify her deviation. Thus the interference, if the declaration is ratified, will be confined to an examination of the ship's papers where the ship is not bound for a belligerent port (cf. art. 30 of the same convention). Standing Peace Agreements. — Foremost among standing peace agreements are, of course, the International Hague Conventions relating directly to peace, agreements which have not only created a special peace jurisdiction for the settlement of international difficulties by judicial methods but also a written law to apply within the scope of this jurisdiction. Alongside the Hague Peace Conventions and more or less connected with them are standing treaties of arbitration which have been entered into by different nations for terms of years separately. The first of what may be called a new series was that between Great Britain and France. It has now been followed by over a hundred others forming a network of international relationships which shows that, at any rate, the wish for peace is universal among mankind.1 1 The following list of standing arbitration treaties concluded after the signing of the Anglo-French treaty of October I4th 1903 is as complete as possible down to June 1910: — Argentina-Brazil, September 7, 1905. „ Portugal, August 27, 1909. Austria-Hungary-Switzerland, December 3, 1904. Belgium-Denmark, April 26, 1905. Greece, May 2, 1905. Norway and Sweden, November 30, 1904. Rumania, May 27, 1905. Russia, October 30, 1904. Spain, January 23, 1905. Switzerland, November 15, 1904. Brazil-Portugal, March 25, 1909. „ Spain, April 8, 1909. „ Mexico, April II, 1909. ,, Honduras, April 26, 1909. ,, Venezuela, April 30, 1909. ,, Panama, May I, 1909. „ Ecuador, May 13, 1909. „ Costa Rica, May 18, 1909. ,, Cuba, June 19, 1909. „ Bolivia, June 25, 1909. „ Nicaragua, June 28, 1909. ,, Norway, July 13, 1909. ,, China, August 3, 1909. „ Salvador, September 3, 1909. „ Peru, December 7, 1909. ,, Sweden, December 14, 1909. Colombia-Peru, September 12, 1905. ,, France, December 16, 1908. Denmark— France, September 15, 1905. „ Italy, December 16, 1905. „ Netherlands, February 12, 1904. „ Russia, March I, 1905. ,, Spain, December I, 1905. „ Norway, October 8, 1908. France-Italy, December 26, 1903. ,, Netherlands, April 6, 1904. ,, Norway and Sweden, July 9, 1904. ,, Spain, February 26, 1904. There are, however, a large number of conventions which, although not concluded with the direct object of assuring peace where difficulties have arisen, tend in a very practical manner to contract the area of possible difficulties. These are conventions for the regulation of intercourse between the subjects and citizens of different states. Such conventions obviously remove occasions for friction and are therefore among the most effective agencies contributing to the preservation of peace among civilized peoples. In most cases such conventions have created inter- national unions of states for all matters which lend themselves to international co-operation. The first in order of date was the postal union. The system it inaugurated has now extended its scope to telegraphs, copyright, industrial property, railway traffic, the publication of customs tariffs, metric measures, monetary systems and agriculture. Berne, being the capital of the most central of the neutral European states, is the adminis- trative centre of most of these unions. Customs tariffs and the monetary unions, however, are centralized at Brussels, France— Sweden and Norway, July 9, 1904. Switzerland, December 14, 1904. Brazil, April 7, 1909. Great Britain— France, October 14, 1903. Germany, July 12, 1904. Italy, February i, 1907. Austria-Hungary, January II, 1905. Netherlands, February 15, 1905. Colombia, December 30, 1908. Sweden and Norway, August n, 1904. Denmark, October 25, 1904. Portugal, November 16, 1904. Spain, February 27, 1904. Switzerland, November 16, 1904. United States, April 4, 1908. Brazil, June 18, 1909. Honduras-Spain, May 13, 1905. Italy— Argentine, September 18, 1907. Mexico, October i, 1907. Peru, April 18, 1907. Portugal, May II, 1905. Switzerland, November 23, 1904. Netherlands, November 21, 1909. Netherlands-Portugal, October 26, 1905. Norway— Sweden, October 26, 1905. Norway and Sweden-Russia, December 9, 1904. „ „ Spain, January 23, 1905. ,, „ Switzerland, December 17, 1904. Portugal-Spain, May 31, 1904. Austria-Hungary, February 13, 1906. Denmark, March 20, 1907. France, June 29, 1906. Italy, May n, 1905. Netherlands, October I, 1904. Norway and Sweden, May 6, 1905. (Suspended for Norway by a new one dated December 8, 1908.) Spain, May 31, 1904. Switzerland, August 18, 1905. Nicaragua, July 17, 1909. Russia— Norway and Sweden, November 26, 1904. Spain-Greece, December 3-16, 1909. Switzerland, May 14, 1907. United States-Spain, April 20, 1908. Denmark, May 18, 1908. Italy, March 28, 1908. Japan, May 5, 1908. Netherlands, May 2, 1908. Portugal, April 6, 1908. Sweden, May 2, 1908. Switzerland, February 29, 1908. Argentina, December 23, 1908. Peru, December 3, 1908. Salvador, December 21, 1908. Norway, April 4, 1908. Mexico, March 24, 1908. France, February 2, 1908. Ecuador, January 7, 1909. Bolivia, January 7, 1909. Haiti, January 7, 1909. Uruguay, January 9, 1909. Chile, January 13, 1909. Costa Rica, January 13, 1909. Austria-Hungary, January 15, 1909. Brazil, January 23, 1909. Paraguay, March 13, 1909. China, October 8, 1908. PEACE the weights and measures union in Paris and the agricultural institute at Rome. The general postal union was c-eated by a convention signed at Berne in 1874. A convention for a similar union for telegraphs was signed in Paris in 1875 (revised at St Petersburg and replaced by another the same year). Both unions issue monthly bulletins and other publications giving useful information about these two services.1 The international bureau of weights and measures at Paris was created by a convention signed there in 1875, for the purpose of comparing and verifying weights and measures on the metric system, and preserving their identity for the contracting states. The double-standard Latin union monetary system was founded by a convention of 1865, between Belgium, France, Italy and Switzerland. In 1868 it was joined by Greece. A single standard union exists between Sweden, Norway and Denmark under a convention of 1873. The copyright union was created by an international con- vention signed in 1874. The official bureau of the union is at Berne. It issues a periodical publication called Le Droit d'auteur giving information respecting the laws of different states relating to published matter of all kinds. The term " industrial property " covers patents, trade marks, merchandise marks, trade names, designs and models. The convention dealing with them signed in 1883 created a union with its central office at Berne. It, too, issues a bulletin and other publications which help to prevent misunderstandings. The railway traffic union was formed by a convention of 1890. The central bureau at Berne issues a monthly bulletin. A subsequent convention was signed at Berne in 1886 relating to matters of technical unification. 1 A subsidiary convention not quite falling within the scope of the above convention is the submarine telegraphs convention, which was signed in 1884. It applies outside territorial waters to all legally established submarine cables landed on the territories, colonies or possessions of one or more of the high contracting parties. Under its provisions it is a punishable offence " to break or injure a submarine cable wilfully or by culpable negligence in such manner as might interrupt or obstruct telegraphic communi- cation either wholly or partially, such punishment being without prejudice to any civil action for damages. It also provides that: — • " Vessels engaged in laying or repairing submarine cables shall conform to the regulations as to signals which have been, or may be, adopted by mutual agreement among the high contracting parties with the view of preventing collisions at sea. When a ship engaged in repairing a cable exhibits the said signals, other vessels which see them or are able to see them shall withdraw to or keep beyond a distance of one nautical mile at least from the ship in question so as not to interfere with her operations " (art. 5). " Owners of ships or vessels who can prove that they have sacrificed an anchor, a net or other fishing-gear in order to avoid injuring a submarine cable shall receive compensation from the owner of the cable," and " in order to establish a claim to such compensation a statement supported by the evidence of the crew should whenever possible be drawn up immediately after the occurrence and the master must within twenty-four hours after his return to or next putting into port make a declaration to the proper authorities " (art. 7). " The tribunals competent to take cognizance of infractions of the present convention are those of the country -to which the vessel on board of which the offence was committed belongs " (art. 8). By art. 15 it is provided that the stipulations of the con- vention do not in any way restrict the action of belligerents. It may be remarked that the British representative at the time of signing the convention declared that his government understood that in the time of war a belligerent would be free to act in regard to submarine cables as though the convention did not exist. The act to carry into effect the above convention is the Submarine Telegraph Act 1885 (48 & 49 Viet. c. 49) which was slightly modified by 50 Viet. c. 3. Section 3 of the earlier act provides that a person who injures the cable either wilfully or by culpable negli- gence is " guilty of a misdemeanour and on conviction: (a) if he acted wilfully, shall be liable to penal servitude for a term not exceeding five years, or to imprisonment with or without hard abour for a term not exceeding two years, and to a fine either in lieu of or in addition to such penal servitude or imprisonment; and (ft) if he acted by culpable negligence shall be liable to im- prisonment for a term not exceeding three months without hard labour, and to a fine not exceeding £100 either in lieu of or in addition to such imprisonment." See Board of Trade Correspondence on Protection of Submarine Cables, printed on the 24th of July 1882; and Parliamentary Paper C. 5910: 1890. Under the convention creating the customs tariffs union, signed in 1890, thirty states, including Great Britain and most British colonies, are associated for the purpose of prompt publication of custom tariffs and their modifications. The agricultural institute, created by a convention of 1905 w;th its seat at Rome, as the ktest in date is perhaps the most interesting of the series. It shows how deep and widespread the sense of the utility of international state co-operation has become. The convention sets out the scope and objects of the institute, which a recent British official publication states has been joined by 38 states, including Great Britain and all other great powers, as follows:- Whilst limiting its action to international questions, it shall be the duty of the institute: (a) To collect, elaborate and publish, with as little delay as possible, statistical, technical, or economic information regarding the cultivation of the soil, its productions, whether animal or vegetable, the trade in agricultural products, and the prices obtained on the various markets. (6) To communi- cate to interested parties, also without delay, full information of the nature above mentioned, (c) To indicate the wages of rural labour, (d) To notify all new diseases of plants which may appear in any part of the world, indicating the districts affected, the spread of the disease, and, if possible, the efficacious means of resistance. (e) To consider questions relating to agricultural co-operation, insurance and credit, in all their forms, collecting and publishing information which may be useful in the various countries for the organization of undertakings relating to agricultural co-operation, insurance and credit, (f) To present, if expedient, to the govern- ments, for their approval, measures for the protection of the common interests of agriculturists and for the improvement of their con- dition, after having previously taken every means of obtaining the necessary information, e.g. resolutions passed by international congresses or other congresses relating to agriculture or to sciences applied to agriculture, agricultural societies, academies, learned societies, &c. All questions relating to the economic interests, the legislation and administration of any particular state, must be excluded from the sphere of the institute. (Art. 9). Lastly, there is a class of difficulties which might arise from preferential treatment of trade from different countries. To obviate them statesmen have been led to adopt the principle of the " most-favoured-nation-clause " — that is to say, a clause providing that if any reductions of tariff or other advantages are granted by either contracting state to any third state, the others shall have the benefit of it. In Europe this clause has been uniformly treated as applying to all reductions of tariff without distinction. The United States interpretation, on the other hand, distinguishes between reductions of a general character and reductions made specifically in return for reductions by some other state. The latter do not come within the operation of the clause, and a co-contracting state is only entitled to obtain extension of them to itself on granting similar concessions. In other words, concessions to any co-contracting state are only allowed gratuitously to a third co-contracting state when nothing has been given for them, the clause not covering advan- tages granted in return for advantages. It is to be hoped that this special view of the meaning of the clause will be met in the future, as in some recent treaties, by specifically dealing with the exceptions.2 The Utility of Popular Effort.— Until quite recently'it had been a distinctive mark of practical wisdom to treat private efforts for the improvement of international relations for the preservation of peace, with the patronizing tolerance courteous people of the world extend to half-crazy idealists. Since the opening of the century, an immense change has taken place in the attitude of the leaders of popular opinion towards the advocacy of peace. This new attitude has been contemporary with the greater interest displayed by the mercantile classes of England and the United States in the improvement of their political relations with their neighbours. It may be said to have begun with the visit of the Association of British Chambers of Commerce to Paris in 1900, at a time when France was still smarting from the humiliation of the Fashoda affair, and the Boer War was exciting hostile demonstrations against Great Britain throughout the conti- nent of Europe. That some four hundred British manufacturers J See Barclay, Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy (1907), p. 137 seq. PEACE and merchants, representing about eighty chambers of commerce of the United Kingdom, should have swept aside all political objections and have boldly trusted to the efficacy of friendly advances as between man and man, appealed to the French people. It seems to have been the first great popular effort ever made deliberately by a representative body of the middle class of a nation for the promotion of international friendship without the aid of diplomacy and without official assistance or even countenance of any kind. Otherwise, private agencies of a standing character which contribute towards the promotion of peace may be divided into four classes, viz. (i) those which, without having peace for their direct object, promote friendship among men of different races and nationalities; (2) those which directly address themselves to the promoting of friendship and goodwill among peoples; (3) those which regarding peace as the immediate object of their efforts, endeavour to educate democracy in this sense 5(4) those which endeavour to remove the causes of international friction by the codification of International law and the promotion of the international regulation of common interests. Lastly, there are two agencies which cannot be classed among the foregoing; one is the International Parliamentary Union and the other the Nobel Prize Committee. 1. Agencies which are indirectly making for peace are of many kinds. Science and medicine now bring men of all nations together in periodical congresses. Technology, electricity, mining, railways, navigation and many other subjects are now dealt with in international congresses. International exhibitions are always used as an occasion for holding many such meetings. 2. One of the most notable efforts directed to the deliberate cementing of friendship has been the interchange of official visits by municipal bodies. In the course of the Anglo-French agitation which culminated in March 1903 with the visit of King Edward to Paris, the French municipal councils passed many resolutions in favour of the entente. After the conclusion of the Anglo-French standing treaty of arbitration (Oct. 14, 1903) and the arrangements for the general settlement of outstanding difficulties with France (April 8, 1904), the municipal bodies in France were prepared to go a step farther, and in 1906 the Muni- cipal Council of Paris was invited by the London County Council to pay an official visit to England. This visit was followed by a return visit to Paris and a similar exchange of visits between the London City Corporation and the Paris Municipal Council, exchange visits of the city corporations of Manchester, Glasgow and Edinbuigh and Lyons, and a visit of the Manchester Corpora- tion to Dusseldorf, Barmen and Cologne. A society, numbering many thousands of working men among its members, which has set itself the more special task of promoting the interchange of visits between working men of different nations, is called the " International Brotherhood Alliance," or, after the initials of its motto, Fraternitas inter gentes, the F.I.G. Another agency, called the " American Association for International Concili- ation," seeks by the publication of essays on the different aspects of international friendship to promote the same cause. 3. The " peace societies," which are scattered over the whole world, number several hundreds.1 Their first International Congress was held in London at the suggestion of Joseph Sturge in 1843. In J848 a second congress was held at Brussels. The third in 1849 took place in Paris, and was presided over by Victor Hugo. Other congresses were held at Frankfurt, again in London, and in 1853 at Manchester, where Richard Cobden and John Bright took part in the discussions. Then followed an interval of wars during which the Pacifists were unable to raise their voices. At length in 1878 a congress was held at the Paris International Exhibition of that year, but it was not till the next Paris International Exhibition of 1889 that these international peace congresses became periodical. Since then numerous con- gresses have been held, the seventeenth having sat in London in 1908, and the eighteenth at Stockholm in 1910. These congresses have been supplemented by national congresses in 1 See Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste pour Vannee iQio, published by the Bureau International de la Paix, at Bern. both Great Britain and France. Such congresses are doing admirable work in the popularizing of thought upon the numerous questions which are discussed at the meetings, such as compulsory arbitration, the restriction of armaments, private property at sea in time of war, the position of subject races, airships in war, &c.2 4. First among the bodies which try to remove the causes of international friction is the Institute of International Law. This is a body of international lawyers, consisting of sixty mem- bers and sixty associates recruited by election — the members from those who " have rendered services to international law in the domain of theory or practice," and associates from those " whose knowledge may be useful to the Institute." It was formed in 1873, chiefly through the efforts of M. Rolin-Jaequemyns. The official language of the Institute is French, and its annual meetings are held wherever the members at the previous meeting decide to assemble. Its mode of operation is to work out tht matters it deals with during the intervals between the sessions, in permanent commissions, among which the whole domain of international law is divided up. The commissions, under the direction of their rapporteurs or conveners, prepare reports and proposals, which are printed and distributed among the members some time before the plenary sittings at which they are to be discussed. If the members are not agreed, the subject is adjourned to another session, and still another, until they do agree. Thus the resolutions of the Institute have the authority attaching to a mature expression of the views of the leading international jurists of Europe. Another body having a more or less similar purpose is the International Law Association, which was founded in 1873 as the " Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of Nations," with practically the same objects as those which led to the constitution of the Institute of International Law. It also meets in different countries, but it differs from the Institute in the number of its members being unlimited and in all respectable persons being eligible for mem- berchip. A report is published after each meeting. There are now numerous volumes of such reports, many of them containing most valuable materials for international jurists. In 1895 the name was changed to International Law Association. A new society was recently (1906) formed in America called the American Society of International Law, " to foster the study of international law and piomote the establishment of international relations on the basis of law and justice." " Membership in the society is not restricted to lawyers, and any man of good moral character interested in the objects of the society may be admitted to membership." The publications of this society have already taken an important place among the literature of international law. Still more recently yet another society came into being in Switzerland with objects which seem to be similar to those of the Institute of International Law. The Inter-Parliamentary Union, which dates back to 1887, owes its origin to the initiative of the late Sir W. R. Cremer. It is composed of groups of the different parliaments of the world, who meet periodically to " bring about the acceptance in their respective countries, by votes in parliament and by means of arbitration treaties, of the principle that differences between nations should be submitted to arbitration and to consider other questions of international importance."3 The sixteenth conference was held at Brussels in August-September, 1910. 2 At the third congress of the new series, held at Rome in 1891, was created the Bureau International de la Paix. This most useful institution, which has its office at Bern, serves as a means of bringing and keeping together all the known peace societies. Its Corre- spondance bimensuelle and Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste are well known, and its obliging hon. secretary, Dr A. Gobat, is always ready to supply information from the now considerable archives of the Bureau. In this connexion we may mention that the secretary of the London Peace Society, Dr Evans Darby, has edited an exhaustive collection of materials called International Tribunals. His statements every two years on the progress of arbitration at the International Law Association meetings also form an excellent' source of materials for reference. 3 Art. I of Statutes revised Sept. 1908. 1 6 PEACE, BREACH OF THE-PEACE CONFERENCES The Nobel Committee owes its existence to the will of the late Alfred B. Nobel (1833-1896), the inventor of dynamite, who left a considerable fortune for the encouragement of men who work for the benefit of humanity. The interest of this money was to be divided into five equal parts, to be distributed every year as rewards to the persons who had deserved best of mankind in five departments of human activity. The clauses of the will governing the distribution of these prizes are as follows:- " The entire sum shall be divided into five equal parts, one to go to the man who shall have made the most important discovery or invention in the domain of physical science; another to the man who shall have made the most important discovery or introduced the greatest improvement in chemistry; the third to the author of the most important discovery in the domain of physiology or medicine; the fourth to the man who shall have produced the most remarkable work of an idealistic nature; and, finally, t fifth to the man who shall have done the most or best work for the fraternity of nations, the suppression or reduction of standing armies, and the formation and propagation of peace congresses. The prizes shall be awarded as follows: For physical science and chemistry, by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; for physiological or medical work, by the Caroline Institutional Stockholm; for litera- ture, by the Stockholm Academy, and for peace work, by a com- mittee of five members elected by the Norwegian Storthing. It is my express desire that, in awarding the prizes, no account shall be taken of nationality, in order that the prize may fall to the lot of the most deserving, whether he be Scandinavian or not. Peace v. War. — Peace is the ultimate object of all statecraft — peace in the development of the domestic activities of the nation administered, and peace in the relations of states with one another. For the purpose of ensuring peace an expensive diplomacy is maintained by all states, and to perpetuate it treaties are entered into by states with one another. Even war has no other avowed purpose than that of placing specific international relations on a definite footing. Ultimate peace is uniformly proclaimed by every dictator at home, by every conqueror abroad, as the goal to which he is directing his efforts. And yet dissentient voices are sometimes heard defending war as if it were an end in itself. Without going back to the well- known reply of Count Moltke to Professor Bluntschli respecting the Manual of the Laws of War drawn up by the Institute of International Law in iSSo,1 we need only quote that highly up-to-date philosopher, Nietzsche : " It is mere illusion and pretty sentiment," he observes, " to expect much (even anything at all) from mankind if it forgets how to make war. As yet no means are known which call so much into action as a great war, that rough energy born of the camp, that deep impersonality born of hatred, that conscience born of murder and cold-blooded- ness, that fervour born of effort in the annihilation of the enemy, that proud indifference to loss, to one's own existence, to that of one's fellows, to that earthquake-like soul-shaking which a people needs when it is losing its vitality." 2 It is pleasant to contrast this neurotic joy of one onlooker with the matter-of-fact reflexions of another, the late W. E. H. Lecky. " War " he says " is not, and never can be a mere passionless discharge of a painful duty. It is in its essence, and it is a main condition of its success, to kindle into fierce exercise among great masses of men the destructive and com- bative passions — passions as fierce and as malevolent as that with which the hound hunts the fox to its death or the tiger springs upon its prey. Destruction is one of its chief ends. Deception is one of its chief means, and one -of the great arts of skilful generalship is to deceive in order to destroy. Whatever other elements may mingle with and dignify war, this at least is never absent; and however reluctantly men may enter into war, however conscientiously they may endeavour to avoid it, they must know that when the scene of carnage has once opened, these things must be not only accepted and condoned, but stimulated, encouraged and applauded. It would be difficult to conceive a disposition more remote from the morals of ordinary life, not to speak of Christian ideals, than that with " Perpetual peace," he said, " is a dream, and it is not even a beautiful dream. War is an element in the order of the world ordained by God . . . Without war the world would stagnate and lose itself in materialism." 2 Menschliches, AttzumensMiches, No. 477. which the soldiers most animated with the fire and passion that lead to victory rush forward to bayonet the foe. ... It is allow- able to deceive an enemy by fabricated despatches purporting ;o come from his own side; by tampering with telegraph mes- sages; by spreading false intelligence in newspapers; by sending pretended spies and deserters to give him untrue reports of the lumbers or movements of the troops; by employing false signals .o lure him into an ambuscade. On the use of the flag and uniform of an enemy for purposes of deception there has been some controversy, but it is supported by high military authority. Hardly any one will be so confident of the virtue of his rulers as to believe that every war which his country wages in very part of its dominions with uncivilized as well as civilized Deputations, is just and necessary, and it is certainly prima acie not in accordance with an ideal morality that men should jind themselves absolutely for life or for a term of years to kill without question, at the command of their superiors, those who lave personally done them no -wrong." 3 Surely with all the existing activity in the removal of causes of war, in the reduction to precise expression of the rules of law governing the relations of states with one another, in the creation of international judicatures for the application of these rules, in the concluding of treaties specifically framed to facilitate the Dacific settlement of difficulties diplomacy may have failed to adjust, in the promotion of democratic civilian armies with everything to lose by war, and all the other agencies which have seen described above, the hope seems warranted that, in no distant future, life among nations will become still more closely assimilated to life among citizens of the same nation, with legislation, administration, reform all tending to the one real object of law, order and peace among men. (T. BA.) PEACE, BREACH OF THE. Theoretically all criminal offences cognizable by English law involve a breach of the king's peace, and all indictments whether for offences against the common law or by statute conclude " against the peace of our lord the king, his crown and dignity." Historically this phrase, now legally superfluous, represents the last trace of the process by which the royal courts assume jurisdiction over all offences, and gradually extruded the jurisdiction of the sheriff and of lords of manors and franchises, making crime a matter of national concern as distinguished from civil wrongs or infractions of the rights of local magnates, or of the rights of the tribal chiefs of the Teutonic conquerors of Britain. The peace of the king was sworn on his accession or full recognition, and the jurisdiction of his courts to punish all violations of that peace was gradually asserted. The completion of this process is marked by the institution of the office of justice of the peace. In modern times the expression "breach of the peace" is usually limited to offences involving actual tumult, disturbances or dis- order. As regards such offences, although they do not fall into the class of grave crimes described as felonies, officers of police and even private persons have larger powers and duties, as to immediate arrest without waiting for judicial warrant, than they possess as to other minor offences (see ARREST). Justices of the peace have under early statutes and the commission of the peace power to take sureties of the peace from persons who are threatening to commit a breach of the peace, and it is within the power of any court on conviction of any misdemeanour and of many felonies to require the offender to enter into a recognizance (q.t>.) to keep the peace. PEACE CONFERENCES, the official title of the two inter- national conferences held at the Hague in 1899 and 1907. Both were organized at the instance of the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia. The chief object of the first conference, as set out in the note of Count Mouraviev, the Russian minister of foreign affairs (Jan. n, 1899), was to arrive at an "understanding not to increase for a fixed period the present effectives of the armed military and naval forces, and at the same time not to increase the budgets pertaining thereto; and a preliminary examination of the means by which even a reduction might be effected in future in the forces and budgets above 3 The Map of Life, 1902, pp. 92-97. PEACH, C. W. mentioned."1 The conference, which was attended by repre- sentatives of 26 states, sat from the i8th of May to the 2pth of July 1899. When the subject of excessive armaments came up for dis- cussion, the objections of the German military delegate led to its abandonment. Other very important matters, however, were dealt with, and three momentous conventions were adopted, viz. — I. A convention for the pacific settlement of international disputes. II. A convention relating to the laws and customs of war by land. III. A convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the principles of the Geneva Convention of the 22nd of August 1864. Three declarations on the following matters were also adopted : — a. Prohibition of the launching of projectiles and explosives from balloons or by other similar new methods.2 b. Prohibition of the use of projectiles the only object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases. c. Prohibition of the use of bullets which expand or flatten easily in the human body, such as bullets with a hard envelope, of which the envelope does not entirely cover the corej or is pierced with incisions. The conference furthermore passed the following resolutions: — " The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of military budgets, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral welfare of mankind." " The Conference, taking into consideration the preliminary steps taken by the Swiss Federal Government for the revision of the Geneva Convention, expresses the wish that steps may be shortly taken for the assembling of a special Conference, having for its object the revision of that Convention." The following vasux were adopted, but not unanimously: — " I. The Conference expresses the wish that the question of the rights and duties of neutrals may be inserted in the programme of a conference in the near future. " 2. The Conference expresses the wish that the questions with regard to rifles and naval guns, as considered by it, may be studied by the Governments with the object of coming to an agreement respecting the employment of new types and calibres. 3. The Conference expresses the wish that the Governments, taking into consideration the proposals made at the Conference, may examine the possibility of an agreement as to the limitation of armed forces by land and sea, and of war budgets. " 4. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposals which contemplate the declaration of the inviolability of private property in naval warfare may be referred to a subsequent conference for consideration. " 5. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposal to settle the question of the bombardment of ports, towns and villages by naval forces may be referred to a subsequent conference for consideration." Great Britain signed and became a party to the three Conventions, but not to all the declarations, &c. The Conference of 1907, which was attended by representatives of forty-four states, sat from the isth of June to the i8th of October. Again, in spite of the resolution and vceu on arma- ments handed down from the Conference of 1899 this subject was waived, but still more important conventions than in 1899 were adopted on other matters. These were as follows: — I. Convention for the pacific settlement of international disputes.3 II. Convention respecting the limitation of the employment of force for the recovery of contract debts. III. Convention relative to the commencement of hostilities. IV. Conventions concerning the laws and customs of war on land.' V. Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers and persons in war on land. VI. Convention relative to the status of enemy merchant-ships at the outbreak of hostilities. 1 At the Conference the Russian government, further developing the proposal, submitted the following details: — " I. Establishment of an international understanding for a term of five years, stipulating non-increase of the present figures of the peace effective of the troops kept up for home use. " 2. Fixation, in case of this understanding being arrived at, and, if possible, of the figures of the peace effective of all the powers excepting colonial troops. " 3. Maintenance for a like term of five years of the amount of the military budgets at present in force." 3 This Conference was held at Geneva in June-July 1906. The revised Convention, composed of 33 articles, is dated July 6, 1906. 3 This is an amended edition of that of 1899. VII. Convention relative to the conversion of merchant-ships into war-ships. VIII. Convention relative to the laying of automatic submarine contact mines. IX. Convention respecting bombardment by naval forces in time of war. X. Conventions for the adaptation of the principles of the Geneva Convention to maritime war.4 XI. Convention relative to certain restrictions on the exercise of the right of capture in maritime war.4 XII. Convention relative to the establishment of an international prize court. XIII. Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers in maritime war. XIV. Declaration prohibiting discharge of projectiles, &c., from balloons.6 A draft Convention relative to the creation of a judicial arbitration court was also drawn up in connexion with the first of the four following vosux: — I. The Conference calls the attention of the signatory powers to the advisability of adopting the annexed draft convention for the creation of a judicial arbitration court, and of bringing it into force as soon as an agreement has been reached respecting the selec- tion of the judges and the constitution of the court. 2. The Conference expresses the opinion that, in case of war, the responsible authorities, civil as well as military, should make it their special duty to ensure and safeguard the maintenance of pacific relations, more especially of the commercial and industrial relations between the inhabitants of the belligerent states and neutral countries. 3. The Conference expresses the opinion that the powers should regulate, by special treaties, the position, as regards military charges, of foreigners residing within their territories. 4. The Conference expresses the opinion that the preparation of regulations relative to the laws and customs of naval war should figure in the programme of the next conference,6 and that in any case the powers may apply, as far as possible, to war by sea the principles of the Convention relative to the laws and customs of war on land. Finally, the Conference recommended to the powers the assembly of a Third Peace Conference, and it called their atten- tion to the necessity of preparing the programme of this Third Conference a sufficient time in advance to ensure its deliberations being conducted with the necessary authority and expedition. In order to attain this object the Conference considered that it " would be very desirable that, some two years before the probable date of the meeting, a preparatory committee should be charged by the governments with the task of collecting the various proposals to be submitted to the Conference, of ascertaining what subjects are ripe for embodiment in an international regulation, and of preparing a programme which the governments should decide upon in sufficient time to enable it to be carefully examined by the countries interested," and that this committee should further be entrusted with the task of proposing a system of organization and procedure for the Conference itself. (T. BA.) PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886), British naturalist and geologist, was born on the 3oth of September 1800 at Wans- ford in Northamptonshire; his father at the time was a saddler and harness-maker, and afterwards became an innkeeper farming about 80 acres of land. He received an elementary education at Wansford and at Folkingham in Lincolnshire; and assisted for several years in the inn and farm. In 1824 he was appointed riding officer in the Revenue Coast-guard at Weybourn in Norfolk. Sea-weeds and other marine organisms now attracted his attention, and these he zealously collected. His duties during the next few years led him to remove successively to Sheringharrf, Hasboro (Happisburgh), Cromer and Cley, all in Norfolk. In the course of his rambles he met the Rev. James Layton, curate at Catfield, who lent him books and assisted in laying the foundations of accurate knowledge About the year 1830 he was transferred to Charmouth in Dorset, thence to Beer, and Paignton in Devon, and to Gorran Haven near Mevagissey in Cornwall. Here he continued to pursue his zoological studies 4 This is an amended edition of that of 1899. 6 This was practically a re-enactment of that of 1899. 6 This has since been done to a large extent by the Conference of London (1908-1909). See BLOCKADE, CONTRABAND, INTERNATIONAL LAW PEACE. i8 PEACH and supplied many specimens to G. Johnston, who was then preparing his History of the British Zoophytes (1838). It was here too that he first found fossils in some of the older rocks previously regarded as unfossiliferous — the discovery of which proved the presence of Bala Beds (Ordovician or Lower Silurian) in the neighbourhood of Gorran Haven. In 1841 he read a paper before the British Association at Plymouth " On the Fossil Organic Remains found on the south-east coast of Cornwall," and in 1843 he brought before the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall an account of his discovery of fish remains in the Devo- nian slates near Polperro. Peach was transferred for a time to Fowey; and in 1849 to Scotland, first to Peterhead and then to Wick (1853), where he made acquaintance with Robert Dick of Thurso. He collected the old red Sandstone fishes; and during a sojourn at Durness he first found fossils in the Cambrian limestone (1854). Peach retired from the government service in 1 86 1, and died at Edinburgh on the a8th of February 1886. Biographical notice, with portrait, in S. Smiles's Robert Dick, Baker, of Thurso, Geologist and Botanist (1878). PEACH, the name of a fruit tree which is included by Bentham and Hooker (Genera plantarum, i. 610) under the genus Prunus (Prunus persica); its resemblance to the plum is indeed obvious. Others have classed it with the almond as a distinct genus, Amygdalus; while others again have considered it sufficiently distinct to constitute a separate genus, Persica. In general terms the peach may be said to be a medium-sized tree, with lanceolate, stipulate leaves, borne on long, slender, relatively unbranched shoots, and with the flowers arranged singly, or in groups of two or more, at intervals along the shoots of the previous year's growth. The flowers have a hollow tube at the base bearing at its free edge five sepals, an equal number of petals, usually con- cave or spoon-shaped, pink or white, and a great number of stamens. The pistil consists of a single carpel with its ovary, style, stigma and solitary ovule Qr twin ^^ Thfi fmit jg & drupe (fig. i) having a thin outer skin (epi- carp) enclosing the flesh of the peach Stone or endpcarp, (mesocarp) , the inner layers of the carpel within which is the becoming woody to form the stone, while the ovule ripens into the kernel or seed. This is exactly the structure of the plum or apricot, and differs from that of the almond, which is identical in the first instance, only in the circumstance that the fleshy part of the latter eventually becomes dry and leathery and cracks open along a line called the suture. The nectarine is a variation from the peach, mainly charac- terized by the circumstance that, while the skin of the ripe fruit is downy in the peach, it is shining and destitute of hairs in the nectarine. That there is no essential difference between the two is, however, shown by the facts that the seeds of the peach will produce nectarines, and vice versa, and that it is not very uncommon, though still exceptional, to see peaches and nectarines on the same branch, and fruits which combine in them- selves the characteristics of both nectarines and peaches. The blossoms of the peach are formed the autumn previous to their expansion, and this fact, together with the peculiarities of their form and position, requires to be borne in mind by the gardener i n his pruning and training operations. The only point of practical interest requiring mention here is the very singular fact attested by all peach-growers, that, while certain peaches are liable to the attacks of mildew, others are not. In the case of the peach this peculiarity is in some way connected with the presence of small glandular outgrowths on the stalk, or at the base of the leaf. Some peaches have globular, others reniform glands, others none at all, and these latter trees are much more subject to mildew than are those provided with glands. The history of the peach, almond and nectarine is interesting and important as regards the question of the origin of species and FIG. I. — Fruit (drupe) of Peach cut lengthwise. e, Skin or cpicarp. wz.Flesh or mesocarp. seed or kernel, (f nat. size.) the production and perpetuation of varieties. As to the origin of the peach two views are held, that of Alphonse de Candolle, who attributes all cultivated varieties to a distinct species, probably of Chinese origin, and that adopted by many naturalists, but more especially by Darwin, who looks upon the peach as a modification of the almond. In the first place, the peach as we now know it has been nowhere recognized in the wild state. In the few instances where it is said to have been found wild the probabilities are that the tree was an escape from cultivation. Aitchison, however, gathered in the Hazardarakht ravine in Afghanistan a form with different-shaped fruit from that of ^he almond, being larger and flatter. " The surface of the fruit," he observes, " resembles that of the peach in texture and colour; and the nut is quite distinct from that of the wild almond. The whole shrub resembles more 'what one might consider a wild form of the peach than that of the almond." It is admitted, however, by all competent botanists that the almond is wild in the hotter and drier parts of the Mediterranean and Levan- tine regions. Aitchison also mentions the almond as wild in some parts of Afghanistan, where it is known to the natives as " bedam," the same word that they apply to the cultivated almond. The branches of the tree are carried by the priests in religious ceremonies. It is not known as a wild plant in China or Japan. As to the necta- rine, of its origin as a variation from the peach there is abundant evidence, as has already been mentioned ; it is only requisite to add the very important fact that the seeds of the nectarine, even when that nectarine has been produced by bud-variation from a peach, will generally produce nectarines, or, as gardeners say, " come true. Darwin brings together the records ofseveral cases, not only of gradations between peaches and nectarines, but also of inter- mediate forms between the peach and the almond. So far as we know, however, no case has yet been recorded of a peach or a necta- rine producing an almond, or vice versa, although if all have had a common origin such an event might be expected. Thus the botanical evidence seems to indicate that the wild almond is the source of cultivated almonds, peaches and nectarines, and consequently that the peach was introduced from Asia Minor or Persia, whence the name Persica given to the peach; and Aitchison's discovery in Afghanistan of a form which reminded him of a wild peach lends additional force to this view. On the other hand, Alphonse de Candolle, from philological and other considerations, considers the peach to be of Chinese origin. The peach has not, it is true, been found wild in China, but it has been cultivated there from time immemorial ; it has entered into the literature and folk-lore of the people; and it is designated by a distinct name, " to " or " tao," a word found in the writings of Confucius five centuries before Christ, and even in other writings dating from the loth century before the Christian era. Though now cultivated in India, and almost wild in some parts of the north- west, and, as we have seen, probably also in Afghanistan, it has no Sanskrit name; it is not mentioned in the Hebrew text of the Scriptures, nor in the earliest Greek times. Xenophon makes no mention of the peach, though the Ten Thousand must have traversed the country where, according to some, the peach is native; but Theophrastus, a hundred years later, does speak of it as a Persian fruit, and De Candolle suggests that it might have been introduced into Greece by Alexander. According to his view, the seeds of the peach, cultivated for ages in China, might have been carried by the Chinese into Kashmir, Bokhara, and Persia between the period of the Sanskrit emigration and the Graeco-Persian period. Once established, its cultivation would readily extend westward, or, on the other hand, by Cabul to north-western India, where its cultiva- tion is not ancient. While the peach has been cultivated in China for thousands of years, the almond does not grow wild in that country and its introduction is supposed not to go back farther than the Christian era. On the whole, greater weight is due to the evidence from botanical sources than to that derived from philology, particularly since the discovery both of the wild almond and of a form like a wild peach in Afghanistan. It may, however, well be that both peach and almond are derived from some pre-existing and now extinct form whose descendants have spread over the whole geographic area mentioned ; but this is a mere speculation, though indirect evidence in its support might be obtained from the nectarine, of which no mention is made in ancient literature, and which, as we have seen, originates from the peach and reproduces itself by seed, thus offering the characteristics of a species in the act of developing itself. The treatment in horticulture of the peach and nectarine is the same in every respect. To perpetuate and multiply the choicer varieties, peaches and nectarines are budded upon plum or almond stocks. For dry situations almond stocks are preferable, but they are not long-lived, while for damp or clayey loams it is better to use certain kinds of plums. Double-working is some- times beneficial ; thus an almond budded on a plum stock may be rebudded with a tender peach, greatly to the advantage of the latter. The peach border should be composed of turfy mellow PEACH loam, such as is suitable for the vine and the fig; this should be used in as rough a state as possible, or not broken small and fine. The bottom should slope towards the outer edge, where a drain should be cut, with an outlet, and on this sloping bottom should be laid a thickness of from 9 in. to 12 in. of rough materials, such as broken bricks or mortar rubbish, over which should be placed a layer of rough turf with the grassy side downwards, and then the good loamy soil to form the border, which should have a depth of about 2 ft. 6 in. The peach-tree is most productive when the roots are kept near the surface, and the borders, which should be from 8 ft. to 12 ft. wide, should not be cropped heavily with culinary vegetables, as deep trenching is very injurious. Sickly and unfruitful trees may often be revived by bringing up their roots within 5 or 6 in. of the surface. It is questionable whether it is not better, in cold soils and bleak situations, to abandon outdoor peach culture, and to cover the walls with a casing of glass, so that the trees may be under shelter during the uncongenial spring weather. The fruit of the peach is produced on the ripened shoots of the preceding year. If these be too luxuriant, they yield nothing but leaves; and if too weak, they are incapable of developing flower buds. To furnish young shoots in sufficient abundance, and of requisite strength, is the great object of peach training and pruning. Trees of slender-growing, twiggy habit naturally fall most readily into the fan form of training, and accordingly this has generally been adopted in the culture of peaches and nectarines (fig. 2). The young tree is, in many cases, procured when it has been trained for two or three years in the nursery; but it is gener- ally better to begin with a maiden plant — that is, a plant of the first year after it has been budded. It is FIG. 2.— Montreuil Fan Training. £he" j.n °rdinary practice headed down to five or six buds, and in the following summer from two to four shoots, according to the vigour of the plant, are trained in, the laterals from which, if any, are thinned out and nailed to the wall. If there are four branches, the two central ones are shortened back at the subsequent winter pruning so as to produce others, the two lower ones being laid in nearly at full length. In the following season additional shoots are sent forth ; and the process is repeated till eight or ten principal limbs or mother branches are obtained, forming, as it were, the frame-work of the future tree. The branches may be depressed or elevated, so as to check or encourage them, as occasion may arise; and it is highly advantageous to keep them thin, without their becoming in any part deficient of young shoots. Sometimes a more rapid mode of formation is now adopted, the main shoots being from the first laid in nearly at full length, instead of being shortened. The pruning for fruit consists in shortening back the laterals which had been nailed in at the disbudding, or summer pruning, their length depending on their individual vigour and the luxuriance of the tree. In well-developed shoots the buds are generally double, or rather triple, a wood bud growing between two fruit buds; the shoot must be cut back to one of these, or else to a wood bud alone, so that a young shoot may be produced to draw up the sap beyond the fruit, this being generally desirable to secure its proper swelling. The point of this leading shoot is subsequently pinched off, that it may not draw away too much of the sap. If the fruit sets too abundantly, it must be thinned, first when as large as peas, reducing the clusters, and then when as large as nuts to distribute the crop equally; the ex- tent of the thinning must depend on the vigour of the tree, but one or two fruits ultimately left to each square foot of wall is a full average crop. The final thinning should take place after stoning. The best-placed healthy young shoot produced from the wood buds at the base of the bearing branch is to be carefully preserved and in due time nailed to the wall. In the following winter this will take the place of the branch which has just borne, and which is to be cut put. If there be no young shoot below, and the bearing branch is short, the shoot at the point of the latter may sometimes be preserved as a fruit bearer, though if the bearing branch be long it is better to cut it back for young wood. It is the neglect of this which constitutes the principal fault in carrying out the English fan system, as it is usually practised. Several times during summer the trees ought to be regularly examined, and the young shoots respectively topped or thinned out; those that remain are to be nailed to the wall, or braced in with pieces of slender twigs, and the trees ought occasionally to be washed with the garden engine or thoroughly syringed, especially during very hot summers. After gathering the fruit all the wood not needed for extending the tree or for fruit bearing next season should be cut out so as to give the shoots left full exposure to air and light. The Montreuil form of training is represented by fig. 2. The principal feature is the suppression of the direct channel of the sap, and the substitution of four, or more commonly two, mother branches, so laid to the wall that the central angle contains about 90°. The other branches are all treated as subordinate members. This form is open to the objection that, if the under branch should die, the upper one cannot be brought down into its place. The form a la Dumoutier (fig. 3), so called from its inventor, is merely a refinement on the Montreuil method. The formation FlG. 3. — Dumoutier's Fan Training. of the tree begins with the inferior limbs and proceeds towards the centre, the branches being lowered from time to time as the tree acquires strength. What is most worthy of notice in. this method is the management of the subordinates in the pruning for fruit. When a shoot promises blossom, it is generally at some distance from the point of insertion into the old wood, and the inter- mediate space is covered with wood buds. All the latter, therefore, which are between the old wood a and the blossoms c in fig. 4, except the lowest b, are carefully removed by rubbing them off with the finger. This never fails to produce a shoot d, the growth of which is favoured by destroying the useless spray e above the blossoms, and pinching off the points of those which are necessary to perfect the fruit. A replacing shoot is thus obtained, to which the whole is invariably shortened at the end of the year. Seymour's form (fig. 5) approaches more nearly to the French method than any other practised in England ; but the direct channel FIG. 4. — Pruning a la Dumoutier. FIG. 5. — Seymour's Fan Training. of the sap is not suppressed, and this results in the production of branches of unequal vigour, which is very undesirable. For cold and late situations, Thomas Andrew Knight recommended the encouragement of spurs on the young wood, as such spurs, when close to the wall, generate the best organized and most vigorous blossoms, and generally ensure a crop of fruit. They may be pro- duced, by taking care, during the summer pruning or disbudding, to preserve a number of the little shoots emitted by the yearly wood, only pinching off the minute succulent points. On the spurs thus formed blossom buds will be developed early in the following season. This practice is well adapted to cold situations. Peach- trees require protection, especially at the period of blossoming, particularly in the north of England and in Scotland. Canvas or bunting screens are most effectual. By applying these early in the season, great benefit may be derived from retarding the blossom till the frosty nights of spring have passed. Wooden and glass copings are also very useful in warding off frosts. Care must be taken that the roots always have a sufficient supply of moisture and that the soil is moist wherever the roots run. Forcing. — The pruning and training of the trees in the peach house do not differ materially from the methods practised out of doors. It may also be stated here that when occasion arises peach- trees well furnished with buds may be transplanted and forced immediately without risking the crop of fruit, a matter of some importance when, as sometimes happens, a tree may accidentally fail. In the forcing of peaches fire heat is commonly applied about December or January ; but it may, where there is a demand, begin a month sooner. The trees must be got to start growth very .20 gradually, and at first the house should be merely kept closed at a temperature of about 45°- but the heat should gradually increase , to 10° at night by the time the trees are in flower, and to 60 when the fruit is set, after which the house should be kept moist by sprinkling the walls and paths, or by placing water troughs on the return pipes, and the temperature should range from 65° 'by day to 70 or more with sun heat. After the fruit has set, the foliage should be refreshed and cleansed by the daily use of the syringe or garden engine. When the fruit has stoned— that is, as soon as the kernels have b formed— the temperature should be raised to about 65 as a minimum, and to 70°, with 75° by sun heat, as a maximum. Water must now be copiously supplied to the border, and air admitted in abundance, but cold draughts which favour the attack of mildew must be avoided. After the end of April little fire heat is required. When the fruit begins to ripen, syringing must be discontinued till the crop is gathered, after which the syringe must be again occasionally used If the leaves should happen to shade the fruit, not only during the ripening process but at any time after the stoning period, they should be gently turned aside, for, in order that the fruit may acquire good colour and flavour, it should be freely exposed to light and air when ripening; it will bear the direct rays of the sun, even if they should rise to 100°, but nectarines are much more liable to damage than peaches. The trees often suffer from mildew, which is best prevented by keeping the borders of the peach house clear and sufficiently moist and the house well ventilated, and if it should appear the trees should be sprayed with I oz. potas- sium sulphide dissolved in 3 gallons of water. Care must be taken in using this fungicide not to wet the painted wood, as it is sure to become discoloured. . Peaches and nectarines are frequently cultivated in well-drained pots, and are then usually trained as pyramids, and in some cases as half-standards. The potting must be done very firmly, using turfy loam with which a little mortar rubble has been mixed. The trees are to be top-dressed from time to time with well-decayed manure and turfy loam, and considerable space must be left in the pots for this and the watering. The following are some of the best_ peaches and nectarines, arranged in the order of the times of their ripening: — PEACHAM— PEACOCK, G. Peaches. Early Beatrice . . m Early Louise . . e. • K Royal George . . j b. Sept. Hales's Early . . b. Aug. Bellegarde . . . b.m.Sept. Rivers's Early York b. m.Aug. Belle Bauce m. Sept. A'bec . . . . m • Aug. Dymond. m. Sept. Crimson Galande . e. Aug. Late Admirable m.e. Sept. Crawford's Early . b. Aug. Sept. Sea Eagle Walburton Admirable \ e. Sept. Grosse Mignonne . b. Aug. Sept. ( Salwey . j e.' OcV. Noblesse . . . | £ Aug. Sept. Princess of Wales . e. Oct. Nectarines. Cardinal (under glass) c. Lord Napier . . b July Aug. Pitmaston Orange . j b. Sept. Darwin m. Aug. Early Rivers . . m. Aug. Violette Hative . . j e. Aug. Balgowan e. b Aug. Sept. Victoria (under glass) Pineapple Sept. b. Sept. Elruge .... 1; Aug. Sept. Stanwick Elruge Humbolt b. Sept. m. Sept. Stanwick (under glass) m.e. Sept. PEACHAM, HENRY (c. i576-c. 1643), English writer, was the son of Henry Peacham, curate of North Mimms, Hertford- shire, and author of a book on rhetoric called the Garden of Rhetoric (1577)- The elder Peacham became in 1597 rector of Leverton, Lincolnshire. The son was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1594-1595 and M. A. in 1 598. He was for some time a schoolmaster at Wymond- ham, Norfolk, but settled in London in 1612, earning his living as tutor to young men preparing for the universities. His first book was Graphice (1606), a treatise on pen and water-colour drawing, which, as The Gentleman's Exercise, passed through three editions. The years 1613-1614 he spent abroad, part of the time as tutor to the three young sons of Thomas Howard (1585-1646), earl of Arundel, and partly on his own account. He travelled in Italy, France, Westphalia and the Netherlands. The table of Sir John Ogle, English governor of Utrecht, was, he says, a " little academy," where he met soldiers and scholars of all nationalities. When he returned to London he was accused of libel on the king. Incriminating papers had been discovered in the house of Edmond Peacham, rector of Hinton Saint George, who, on being charged with an attack on the king denied the authorship, stating that they were written by a namesake, " a divine, a scholar and a traveller." The change was, however, easily rebutted. Peacham had many friends in London, among them Thomas Dowland the musician, Inigo Jones, and Edward Wright the mathematician. In 1622 appeared Peacham's magnum opus, the Compleat Gentleman. Enlarged editions appeared in 1626 and 1627. The 1627 edition was reprinted in 1634, and a third, with additional notes on blazonry by Thomas Blount (1617-1679), appeared in 1661. The book is a text-book of manners and polite learning; it includes chapters on cosmo- graphy, geometry, poetry, music, antiquities, painting, the lives of the painters, the " art of limming " (Peacham himself was a proficient engraver), and the military art, including the order of " a maine battaile or pitched field in eight severall wayes." The book differs from the Courtier of Castiglione, which had been the guide of an earlier generation. Peacham was a Cavalier, even an ardent polemist in the royal cause, but the central point of his book is a more or less Puritan sentiment of duty. In his later years Peacham was reduced to extreme poverty, and is said to have written children's books at a penny each. His last book was published in 1642, and it may be concluded that he died soon afterwards. His other works include: Minerva Britanna (1612), dedicated to Henry, prince of Wales; The Period of Mourning (1613), in honour of the same prince; Thalia's Banquet (1620), a book of epigrams; The Art of Living in London (1642), and The Worth of a Peny (1641), &c. There is a nearly complete collection of Peacham's works in the Bodleian, Oxford. Harleian MS. 6855 contains a translation by Peacham of James I.'s Basilicon doron into Latin verse, written in his own hand and ornamented with pen and ink drawings. His Compleat Gentleman was edited by G. S. Gordon in 1906 for the Clarendon Press; the Art of Living is reprinted in the Harleian Misc. ix. ; The Worth of a Peny in E. Arber's English Garner (vol. vi. 1883). PEACOCK, SIR BARNES (1810-1890), English judge, was born in 1810, the son of Lewis Peacock, a solicitor. After practising as a special pleader, he was called to the bar in 1836, and in 1844 obtained great reputation by pointing out the flaw which invalidated the conviction of Daniel O'Connell and his fellow defendants. In 1852 he went to India as legal member of the governor-general's council. He here displayed great activity as a law reformer, but sometimes manifested too little consideration for native susceptibilities. The legislative council was established soon after his arrival, and although no orator, he was so frequent a speaker that legislation enjoining councillors to deliver their speeches sitting was said to have been devised with the sole object of restraining him. As a member of Lord Dalhousie's council he supported the annexation of Oudh, and he stood by Lord Canning all through the Mutiny. In 1859 he became chief justice of the Supreme Court. He returned to England in 1870, and in 1872 was placed upon the judicial committee of the privy council, where his Indian experience rendered him invaluable. He died on the 3rd of December 1890. PEACOCK, GEORGE (1791-1858), English mathematician, was born at Thornton Hall, Denton, near Darlington, on the 9th of April 1791. He was educated at Richmond, Yorkshire, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1809. He was second wrangler in 1812 (Sir J. F. W. Herschel being senior), was elected fellow of his college in 1814, became assistant tutor in 1815 and full tutor in 1823. While still an undergraduate he formed a league with John Herschel and Charles Babbage, to conduct the famous struggle of " d-ism versus dot-age," which ended in the introduction into Cambridge of the continental notation in the infinitesimal calculus to the exclusion of the fluxional notation o'f Sir Isaac Newton. This was an important reform, not so much on account of the mere change of notation (for mathe- maticians follow J. L. Lagrange in using both these notations), but because it signified the opening to the mathematicians of Cambridge of the vast storehouse of continental discoveries. The analytical society thus formed in 1813 published various memoirs, and translated S. F. Lacroix's Differential Calculus in 1816. Peacock powerfully aided the movement by publishing in 1820 A Collection of Examples of the Application of the Differential and Integral Calculus. In 1841 he published a pamphlet on the PEACOCK, T. L. 21 university statutes, in which he indicated the necessity for reform; and in 1850 and 1855 he was a member of the commission of inquiry relative to the university of Cambridge. In 1837 he was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy. In 1839 he took the degree of D.D., and the same year was appointed by Lord Melbourne to the deanery of Ely. Peacock threw himself with characteristic ardour into the duties of this new position. He improved the sanitation of Ely, published in 1840 Observations on Plans for Cathedral Reform, and carried out extensive works of restoration in his own cathedral. He was twice prolocutor of the lower house of convocation for the province of Canterbury. He was also a prime mover in the establishment of the Cambridge Astronomical Observatory, and in the founding of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. He was a fellow of the Royal, Royal Astronomical, Geological and other scientific societies. In 1838, and again in 1843, he was one of the commissioners for standards of weights and measures; and he also furnished valuable infor- mation to the commissioners on decimal coinage. He died on the 8th of November 1858. Peacock's original contributions to mathematical science were concerned chiefly with the philosophy of its first principles. He did good service in systematizing the operational laws of algebra, and in throwing light upon the nature and use of imaginaries. He published, first in 1830, and then in an enlarged form in 1842, a Treatise on Algebra, in which he applied his philosophical ideas concerning algebraical analysis to the eluci- dation of its elements. A second great service was the publica- tion in the British Association Reports for 1833 of his " Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of certain branches of Analysis." Modern mathematicians may find on reading this brilliant summary a good many dicta which they will call in question, but, whatever its defects may be, Peacock's report remains a work of permanent value. In 1855 he published a memoir of Thomas Young, and about the same time there appeared Young's collected works in three volumes, for the first two of which Peacock was responsible. PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866), English novelist and poet, was born at Weymouth on the i8th of October 1785. He was the only son of a London glass merchant, who died soon after the child's birth. Young Peacock was educated at a private school at Englefield Green, and after a brief experience of business determined to devote himself to literature, while living with his mother (daughter of Thomas Love, a naval man) on their private means. His first books were poetical, The Monks of St Mark (1804), Palmyra (1806), The Genius of the Thames (1810), The Philosophy of Melancholy (1812) — works of no great merit. He also made several dramatic attempts, which were never acted. He served for a short time as secretary to Sir Home Popham at Flushing, and paid several visits to Wales. In 1812 he became acquainted with Shelley. In 1815 he evinced his peculiar power by writing his novel Headlong Hall. It was published in 1816, and Melincourt followed in the ensuing year. During 1817 he lived at Great Marlow, enjoying the almost daily society of Shelley, and writing Nightmare Abbey and Rhododaphne, by far the best of his long poems. In 1819 he was appointed assistant examiner at the India House. Peacock's nomination appears to have been due to the influence of his old schoolfellow Peter Auber, secretary to the East India Company, and the papers he prepared as tests of his ability were returned with the comment, " Nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." This was char- acteristic of the whole of his intellectual work; and equally characteristic of the man was his marriage about this time to Jane Griffith, to whom he proposed by letter, not having seen her for eight years. They had four children, only one of whom, a son, survived his father; one daughter was the first wife of George Meredith. His novel Maid Marian appeared in 1822, The Misfortunes of Elphin in 1829, and Crotchet Castle in 1831; and he would probably have written more but for the death in 1833 of his mother. He also contributed to the Westminster Review and the Examiner. His services to the East India Com- pany, outside the usual official routine, were considerable. He defended it successfully against the attacks of James Silk Buckingham and the Liverpool salt interest, and made the subject of steam navigation to India peculiarly his own. He represented the company before the various parliamentary committees on this question; and in 1839 and 1840 superintended the con- struction of iron steamers, which not only made the voyage round the Cape successfully, but proved very useful in the Chinese War. He also drew up the instructions for the Euphrates expedition of 1835, subsequently pronounced by its commander, General F. R. Chesney, to be models of sagacity. In 1836 he succeeded James Mill as chief examiner, and in 1856 he retired upon a pension. During his later years he contributed several papers to Fraser's Magazine, including reminiscences of Shelley, whose executor he was. He also wrote in the same magazine his last novel, Gryll Grange (1860), inferior to his earlier writings in humour and vigour, but still a surprising effort for a man of his age. He died on the 23rd of January 1866 at Lower Halliford, near Chertsey, where, so far as his London occupations would allow him, he had resided for more than forty years. Peacock's position in English literature is unique. There was nothing like his type of novel before his time; though there might have been if it had occurred to Swift to invent a story as a vehicle for the dialogue of his Polite Conversation. Peacock speaks as well in his own person as through his puppets; and his pithy wit and sense, combined with remarkable grace and accuracy of natural description, atone for the primitive simplicity of plot and character. Of his seven fictions, Nightmare Abbey and Crotchet Castle are perhaps on the whole the best, the former displaying the most vis comica of situation, the latter the fullest maturity of intellectual power and the most skilful grouping of the motley crowd of " perfectibilians, deteriorationists, statu- quo-ites, phrenologists, transcendentalists, political economists, theorists in all sciences, projectors in all arts, morbid visionaries, romantic enthusiasts, lovers of music, lovers of the picturesque and lovers of good dinners," who constitute the dramatis personae of the Peacockian novel. Maid Marian and The Misfortunes of Elpkin are hardly less entertaining. Both contain descriptive passages of extraordinary beauty. Melincourt is a comparative failure, the excellent idea of an orang-outang mimicking humanity being insufficient as the sole groundwork of a novel. Headlong Hall, though more than foreshadowing the author's subsequent excellence, is marred by a certain bookish awkwardness char- acteristic of the recluse student, which reappears in Gryll Grange as the pedantry of an old-fashioned scholar, whose likes and dislikes have become inveterate and whose sceptical liberalism, always rather inspired by hatred of cant than enthusiasm for progress, has petrified into only too earnest conservatism. The book's quaint resolute paganism, however, is very refreshing in an age eaten up with introspection ; it is the kindliest of Peacock's writings, and contains the most beautiful of his poems, " Years Ago," the reminiscence of an early attachment. In general the ballads and songs interspersed through his tales are models of exact and melodious diction, and instinct with true feeling. His more ambitious poems are worth little, except Rhododaphne, attractive as a story and perfect as a composition, but destitute of genuine poetical inspiration. His critical and miscellaneous writings are always interesting, especially the restorations of lost classical plays in the Horae dramaticae, but the only one of great mark is the witty and crushing exposure in the Westminster Review of Thomas Moore's ignorance of the manners and belief he has ventured to portray in his Epicurean. Peacock resented the misrepresentation of his favourite sect, the good and ill of whose tenets were fairly represented in his own person. Some- what sluggish and self-indulgent, incapable of enthusiasm or self- sacrifice, he yet possessed a deep undemonstrative kindliness of nature; he could not bear to see anyone near him unhappy or uncomfortable; and his sympathy, no less than his genial humour, gained him the attachment of children, dependants, and friends. In official life he was upright and conscientious; his judgment was shrewd and robust. What Shelley justly termed " the lightness, strength and chastity " of his diction secures him an honourable rank among those English writers whose claims to remembrance depend not only upon matter but upon style. 22 Peacock's works were collected, though not completely, and pub- lished in three volumes in 1875, at the expense of his friend and former protege, Sir Henry Cole, with an excellent memoir by his granddaughter Mrs Clarke, and a critical essay by Lord Hougnton. His prose works were collected by Richard Garnett in ten volumes (1891) Separate novels are included in " Macmillan s Illustrated Standard Novels," with introductions by Mr Saintsbury. For an interesting personal notice, see A Poet's Sketch Book, by K, W. Buchanan (1884). PEACOCK (Lat. Paw, O. Eng. Pawe, Du. pauuiv, Ger. Pfau, Fr. Paon), the bird so well known from the splendid plumage of the male, and as the proverbial personification of pride. It is a native of the Indian peninsula, and Ceylon, in some parts of which it is very abundant. Setting aside its importation to Palestine by Solomon (i Kings x. 22; 2 Chron. ix. 21), its assignment in classical mythology as the favourite bird of Hera testifies to the early acquaintance the Greeks must have had with it; but, though it is mentioned by Aristophanes and other older writers, their knowledge of it was probably very slight until after the conquests of Alexander. Throughout all succeeding time, however, it has never very freely rendered itself to domestication, and, though in earlier days highly esteemed for the table,1 it is no longer considered the delicacy it was once thought; the young of the wild birds are, however, still esteemed in the East. PEACOCK— PEALE, C. W. Japan or " black-shouldered " Peafowls. As in most cases of domestic animals, pied or white varieties of the ordinary peacock, Pavo crislatus, are not infrequently to be seen, and they are valued as curiosities. Greater interest, however, attends what is known as the Japanese or Japan peacock, a form which has received the name of P. nigripennis, as though it were a distinct species. In this form the cock, besides other less conspicuous differences, has all the upper wing-coverts of a deep lustrous blue instead of being mottled with brown and white, while the hen is of a more or less grizzled- white. It " breeds true "; but occasionally a presumably pure stock of birds of the usual coloration throws out one or more having the Japan plumage. It is to be observed that the male has in the coloration of the parts mentioned no little resemblance to that of the second indubitably good species, the P. muticus (or P. spicifer of some writers) of Burma and Java, though the character of the latter's crest — the feathers of which are barbed along their whole length instead of at the tip only — and its 1 Classical authors contain many allusions to its high appreciation at the most sumptuous banquets; and medieval bills of fare on state occasions nearly always include it. In the days of chivalry one of the most solemn oaths was taken "on the peacock," which seems to have been served up garnished with its gaudy plumage. golden-green neck and breast furnish a ready means of distinction. Sir R. Heron was confident that the Japan breed had arisen in England within his memory,2 and C. Darwin (Animals and Plants under Domestication, i. 290-292) was inclined to believe it only a variety; but its abrupt appearance, which rests on indis- putable evidence, is most suggestive in the light that it may one day throw on the question of evolution as exhibited in the origin of " species." It should be stated that the Japan bird is not known to exist anywhere as a wild race, though apparently kept in Japan. The accompanying illustration is copied from a plate drawn by J. Wolf, given in D. G. Elliot's Monograph of the Phasianidae. The peafowls belong to the group Gallinae, from the normal mem- bers of which they do not materially differ in structure; and, though by some systematists they are raised to the rank of a family, Pavonidae, most are content to regard them as a sub-family of Phasianidae (PHEASANT, q.v.). Akin to the genus Pavo is Poly- plectrum, of which the males are armed with "two or more spurs on each leg, and near them is generally placed the genus Argusianus, containing the argus-pheasants, remarkable for their wonderfully ocellated plumage, and the extraordinary length of the secondary quills of their wings, as well as of the tail-feathers. It must always be remembered that the so-called " tail " of the peacock is formed not by the rectrices or true tail-feathers, but by the singular develop- ment of the tail-coverts. (A. N.) PEAK, THE, a high table-land in the north of Derbyshire, England, included in the Pennine range of hills. The name, however, is extended, without definite limits, to cover the whole of the hilly district north of Buxton. The table-land reaches an elevation of 2088 ft. in Kinder Scout. The geological formation is millstone-grit, and the underlying beds are not domed, but cup-shaped, dipping inward from the flanks of the mass. The summit is a peaty moorland, through which masses of rock project at intervals. The name of this high plateau has from the 1 7th century been identified with " peak," the pointed or conical top of a mountain, but the very early references to the district and certain places in it show clearly, as the New English Dictionary points out, that this connexion is unwarranted. The name appears in the Old English Chronicle (924) as Peaclond, of the district governed from the castle of Peveril of the Peak (sec DERBYSHIRE), and also in the name of the cavern under the hill at Castleton, Peac's Arse. Peac, it has been suggested, is the name of a local deity or demon, and possibly may be indentified with Puck. For the etymology of " peak," point, &c., and its variants or related words, " pick " and " pike," see PIKE. PEALE, CHARLES WILLSON (1741-1826), American portrait painter, celebrated especially for his portraits of Washington, was born in Queen Anne county, Maryland, on the i6th of April 1741. During his infancy the family removed to Chestertown, Kent county, Maryland, and after the death of his father (a country schoolmaster) in 1750 they removed to Annapolis. Here, at the age of 13, he was apprenticed to a saddler. About 1764 he began seriously to study art. He got some assistance from Gustavus Hesselius, a Swedish portrait painter then living near Annapolis, and from John Singleton Copley in Boston; and in 1767-1770 he studied under Benjamin West in London. In 1770 he opened a studio in Philadelphia, and met with immediate success. In 1772, at Mount Vernon, Peale painted a three-quarters-length study of Washington (the earliest known portrait of him), in the uniform of a colonel of Virginia militia. This canvas is now in the Lee Memorial Chapel of Washington and Lee University. He painted various other portraits of Washington; probably the best known in a full-length, which was made in 1778, and of which Peale made many copies. This portrait had been ordered by the Continental Congress, which, however, made no appropriation for it, and eventually it was bought for a private collection in Philadelphia. Peale painted two miniatures of Mrs Washington (1772 and 1777), and portraits of many of the famous men of the time, a number of which are in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His portraits of Washington do not appeal so strongly to Americans as do those of Gilbert Stuart, but his admitted skill as a draughtsman gives to all of his work considerable historical value. Peale removed to 1 A. Newton himself regarded this as probably incorrect. PEALE, R.— PEAR Philadelphia in 1777, and served as a member of the committee of public safety; he aided in raising a militia company, became a lieutenant and afterwards a captain, and took part in the battles of Trenton, Princeton and Germantown. In 1770-1 780 he was a member of the Pennsylvania assembly, where he voted for the abolition of slavery — he freed his own slaves whom he had brought from Maryland. In 1801 he undertook, largely at his own expense, the excavation of the skeletons of two mastodons in Uls'ter and Orange counties, New York, and in 1802 he estab- lished at Philadelphia Peale's Museum. He was one of the founders, in 1805, of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts at Philadelphia. At the age of eighty-one Peale painted a large canvas, " Christ Healing the Sick at Bethesda," and at eighty- three a full-length portrait of himself, now in the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at his country home, near Germantown, Pennsylvania, on the 2 2nd of February 1826. His brother, JAMES PEALE (1749-1831), also an artist, painted two portraits of Washington (one now the property of the New York Historical Society, and the other in Independence Hall, Philadelphia), besides landscapes and historical compositions. PEALE, REMBRANDT (1778-1860), American artist, was born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of February 1778, the son of Charles Willson Peale (q.v.). He studied under his father, under Benjamin West in London (1802-1803), and in Paris in 1807 and 1809. As early as 1795 he had begun from life a portrait of Washington. Of this he made many replicas, the latest in 1823, purchased by the United States government in 1832, and now in the Capitol of Washington. Peale was one of the first of American lithographers. He was an excellent draughtsman, but in colour his work cannot rank with hisfather's. In 1843 he devised for the Philadelphia public schools a system of teaching drawing and penmanship. His portraits include those of President Jefferson, Mrs Madison, Commodores Perry, Decatur, and Bainbridge, Houdon, the sculptor, General Arm- strong, and an equestrian portrait of General Washington, now in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His " Court of Death " (1820) is in the Detroit Art Gallery. In 1825 Peale succeeded John Trumbull as president of the American Academy of Fine Arts (founded in 1802 as the New York Academy of Fine Arts), and he was one of the original members of the National Academy of Design. He wrote several books, among them Notes on Italy (1831), Reminiscences of Art and Artists (1845). He died in Philadelphia on the 3rd of October 1860. A brother, RAPHAELLE PEALE (1774-1825), was one of the earliest of American still-life painters; and another brother, TITIAN RAMSEY PEALE (1800-1885), made numerous drawings, some of them in water-colour, in illustration of animal life. See " Rembrandt Pcalc," partly autobiographical, in C.E.Lester's The Artists of America (New York, 1846). PEAR (Pyrus communis), a member of the natural order Rosaceae, belonging to the same genus as the apple (P. mains), which it resembles in floral structure. In both cases the so- called fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk (the so-called calyx tube) greatly dilated, and en- closing within its cellular flesh the five cartilaginous carpels which constitute the " core " and are really the true fruit. From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five petals, and the very numerous stamens. The form of the pear and of the apple respectively, although usually characteristic enough, is not by itself sufficient to distinguish them, for there are pears which cannot by form alone be distinguished from apples, and apples which cannot by superficial appearance be recognized from pears. The main distinction is the occurrence in the tissue of the fruit, or beneath the rind, of clusters of cells filled with hard woody deposit in the case of the pear, constituting the " grit," while in the apple no such formation of woody cells takes place. The appearance of the tree — the bark, the foliage, the flowers — is, however, usually quite characteristic in the two species. Cultivated pears, whose number is enormous, are without doubt derived from one or two wild species widely distributed throughout Europe and western Asia, and sometimes forming part of the natural vegetation of the forests. In England, where the pear is sometimes considered wild, there is always the doubt that it may not really be so, but the produce of some seed of a cultivated tree deposited by birds or otherwise, which has degenerated into the wild spine-bearing tree known as Pyrus communis. The cultivation of the pear extends to the remotest antiquity. Traces of it have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings; it is mentioned in the oldest Greek writings, and was cultivated by the Romans. The word " pear " or its equivalent occurs in all the Celtic languages, while in Slavonic and other dialects different appellations, but still referring to the same thing, are found — a diversity and multiplicity of nomenclature which led Alphonse de Candolle to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree from the shores of the Caspian to those of the Atlantic. A certain race of pears, with white down on the under surface of their leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of Perry (see CIDER). Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their precocity and apple-like fruit, may be referred to P. cordaia, a species found wild in western France, and in Devonshire and Cornwall. Karl Koch considered that cultivated pears were the descendants of three species — P. persica (from which the bergamots have descended), P. elaeagrifolia and P. sinensis. J. Decaisnc, who made the subject one of critical study for a number of years, and not only investigated the wild forms, but carefully studied the peculiarities of the numerous varieties cultivated in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, refers all cultivated pears to one species, the individuals of which have in course of time diverged in various directions, so as to form now six races: (l) the Celtic, including P. cordata; (2) the Germanic, including P. communis, P. achras, and P. piraster; (3) the Hellenic, including P. parviflora, P. sinaica and others; (4) the Pontic, including P. elaeagrifolia; (5) the Indian, comprising P . Paschae; and (6) the Mongolic, represented by P. sinensis. With reference to the Celtic race, P. cordata, it is interesting to note its connexion with Arthurian legend and the Isle of Avalon or Isle of Apples. An island in Loch Awe has a Celtic legend containing the principal features of Arthurian story; but in this case the word is " berries " instead of " apples." Dr Phen6 visited Armorica (Brittany) with a view of investigating these matters, and brought thence fruits of a small berry-like pear, which were identified with the Pyrus cordata of western France. Cultivation. — The pear may be readily raised by sowing the pips of ordinary cultivated or of wilding kinds, these forming what are known as free or pear stocks, on which the choicer varieties are grafted for increase. For new varieties the flowers should be fertilized with a view to combine, in the seedlings which result from the union, the desirable qualities of the parents. The dwarf and pyramid trees, more usually planted in gardens, are obtained by grafting on the quince stock, the Portugal quince being the best; but this stock, from its surface-rooting habit, is most suitable for soils of a cold damp nature. The pear-stock, having an inclination to send its roots down deeper into the soil, is the best for light dry soils, as the plants are not then so likely to suffer in dry seasons. Some of the finer pears do not unite readily with the quince, and in this case double working is resorted to; that is to say, a vigorous-growing pear is first grafted on the quince, and then the choicer pear is grafted on the pear introduced as its foster parent. In selecting young pear trees for walls or espaliers, some persons prefer plants one year old from the graft, but trees two or three years trained are equally good. The trees should be planted immediately before or after the fall of the leaf. The wall trees require to be planted from 25 to 30 ft. apart when on free stocks, and from 15 to 20 ft. when dwarfed. Where the trees are trained as pyramids or columns they may stand 8 or 10 ft. apart, but standards in orchards should be allowed at least 30 ft., and dwarf bush trees half that distance. In the formation of the trees the same plan may be adopted as in the case of the apple. For the pear orchard a warm situation is very desirable, with a soil deep, substantial, and thoroughly drained. Any good free loam is suitable, but a calcareous loam is the best. Pear trees worked on the quince should have the stock covered up to its junction with the graft. This is effected by raising up a small mound of rich compost around it. a contriv- ance which induces the graft to emit roots into the surface soil, PEARCE— PEARL and also keeps the stock from becoming hard or bark-bound. The fruit of the pear is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots more than one year old. The mode most commonly adopted of training wall pear-trees is the horizontal. For the slender twiggy sorts the fan form is to be preferred, while for strong growers the half-fan or the horizontal is more suitable. In the latter form old trees, the summer pruning of which has been neglected, are apt to acquire an undue projection from the wall and become scraggy, to avoid which a portion of the old spurs should be cut out annually. The summer pruning of established wall or espalier-rail trees consists chiefly in the timely displacing, shortening back, or rubbing off of the superfluous shoots, so that the winter pruning, in horizontal training, is little more than adjusting the leading shoots and thinning out the spurs, which should be kept close to the wall and allowed to retain but two or at most three buds. In fan-training the subordinate branches must be regulated, the spurs thinned out, and the young laterals finally established in their places. When horizontal trees have fallen into disorder, the branches may be cut back to within 9 in. of the vertical stem and branch, and trained in afresh, or they may be grafted with other sorts, if a variety of kinds is wanted. Summer and autumn pears should be gathered before they are fully ripe, otherwise they will not in general keep more than a few days. The Jargonelle should be allowed to remain on the tree and be pulled daily as wanted, the fruit from standard trees thus succeeding the produce of the wall trees. In the case of the Crassane the crop should be gathered at three different times, the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe. The first gathering will come into eating latest, and thus the season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged. It is evident that the same method may be followed with other sorts which continue only a short time in a mature state. Diseases. — The pear is subject to several diseases caused by fungi. Gymnosporangium sabinae, one of the rusts (Uredineae) passes one stage of its life-history on living pear leaves, forming large raised spots or patches which are at first yellow but soon become red and are visible on both faces; on the lower face of each patch is a group of cluster-cups or aecidia containing spores which escape when ripe. This stage in the life-history was formerly regarded as a distinct fungus with the name Roestelia cancellata; it is now known, however, that the spores germinate on young juniper leaves, in which they give rise to this other stage in the plant's history known as Gymnospor- angium. The gelatinous, generally reddish-brown masses of spores — • the teleutospores — formed on the juniper in the spring germinate and form minute spores — sporidia — which give rise to the aecidium stage on the pear. Diseased pear leaves should be picked off and destroyed before the spores are scattered and the various species of juniper on which the alternate stage is developed should not be allowed near the pear trees. Pear scab is caused by a parasitic fungus, Fusidadium pyrinum, very closely allied and perhaps merely a form of the apple scab fungus, F. dendriticum. As in the case of the apple disease it forms large irregular blackish blotches on the fruit and leaves, the injury being often very severe especially in a cool, damp season. The fungus mycelium grows between the cuticle and the epidermis, the former being ultimately ruptured by numerous short branches bearing spores (con- idia) by means of which the disease is spread. As a pre- ventive repeated spraying with dilute Bordeaux mixture is recommended, during the flowering season and early development of the fruit. Similar spraying is recom- (From a specimen in the British Museum.) mended for pear-leaf blister Pear Scab (Fusidadium pyrinum). caused by Taphrina buttata, 1 . Leaf showing diseased areas. !? * forms s^ollen areas on 2, Section of leaf surface showing the ^,SQ fae attackdb spores or conidia, c, borne on long var;etv of : t ^^ stalks (conidiophores) X25O. the yOunger bran injured by the pearl oyster scale (Aspidiotus ostreaeformisi^Uch may be removed by washing in winter with soft soap and hot water. A number of larvae of Lepidoptera feed on the leaves — the remedy is to capture the mature insects when possible. The winter moth (Cheimatobia brumata) must be kept in check by putting greasy bands round the trunks from October till December or January, to catch the wingless females that crawl up and deposit their eggs in the cracks and crevices in the bark. The caterpillars of the leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrina) and of the goat moth (Cossus ligniperda) sometimes bore their way into the trunks and destroy the sap channels. If badly bored, the trees are useless; but in Pear-leaf Cluster-cups (Gymnosporangium sabinae). I. Leaf showing groups of cups or aecidia. 2, Early stage of disease. 3, Cups enlarged X 5. the early stages if the entrance of the caterpillars has been detected, a wire should be pushed into the hole. One of the worst pests of pear trees is the pear midge, known as Diplosis pyrivora or Cecidomyia nigra, the females of which lay their eggs in the flower- buds before they open. The yellow maggots devour the seeds and thus ruin the crop. When deformed fruits are noticed they should be picked off and burned immediately. Species of aphides may be removed by tobacco infusion, soapsuds or other solutions. A gall mite (Phytoptus pyri) sometimes severely injures the leaves, on which it forms blisters — the best remedy is to cut off and burn the diseased leaves. • The Alligator or Avocado Pear is Persea gratissima, a member of the natural order Lauraceae, and a native of the West Indies and other parts of tropical America. It is a tree of 25 to 30 ft. high and bears large pear-shaped fruits, green or deep purple in colour, with a firm yellowish-green marrow-like pulp surrounding a large seed. The pulp is much esteemed in the West Indies and is eaten as a salad, usually with the addition of pepper, salt and vinegar. The pulp contains much oil, which is used for lighting and soap-making, and the seeds yield a deep indelible black stain which is used for marking linen. Prickly pear is the popular name for species of Opunlia (see CACTUS). The name wooden pear is applied to the fruits of Xylotnelum (nat. ord. Proteaceae), an Australian genus of trees with very thick, woody, inversely pear-shaped fruits which split into two parts when ripe. PEARCE, CHARLES SPRAGUE (1851- ), American artist, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the I3th of October 1851. In 1873 he became a pupil of Leon Bonnat in Paris, and after 1885 he lived in Paris and at Auvers-sur-Oise. He painted Egyptian and Algerian scenes, French peasants, and portraits, and also decorative work, notably for the Congressional Library at Washington. He received medals at the Paris Salon and elsewhere, and was decorated with the Legion of Honour, the order of Leopold, Belgium, the order of the Red Eagle, Prussia, and the order of Dannebrog, Denmark. Among his best known paintings are " The Decapitation of St John the Baptist " (i88i),in the Art Institute of Chicago; " Prayer " (1884), owned by the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association; " The Return of the Flock," in the Bohemian Club, San Frana'sco; and " Meditation," in the New York Metropolitan Museum. PEARL. Pearls are calcareous concretions of peculiar lustre, produced by certain molluscs, and valued as objects of personal ornament. The experience of pearl-fishers shows that those shells which are irregular in shape and stunted in growth, or PEARL which bear excrescences, or are honeycombed by boring parasites, are those most likely to yield pearls. The substance of a pearl is essentially the same as that which lines the interior of many shells and is known as " mother-of- pearl." Sir D. Brewster first showed that the iridescence of this substance was an optical phenomenon due to the interference of rays of light reflected from microscopic corrugations of the surface — an effect which may be imitated by artificial striations on a suit- able medium. When the inner laminated portion of a nacreous shell is digested in acid the calcareous layers are dissolved away, leaving a very delicate membranous pellicle, which, as shown by Dr Carpenter, may retain the iridescence as long as it is undisturbed, but which loses it when pressed or stretched. It is obvious that if a pearl presents a perfectly spherical form it must have remained loose in the substance of the muscles or other soft tissues of the mollusc. Frequently, however, the pearl becomes cemented to the interior of the shell, the point of attach- ment thus interfering with its symmetry. In this position it may receive successive nacreous deposits, which ultimately form a pearl of hemispherical shape, so that when cut from the shell it may be flat on one side and convex on the other, forming what jewelers know as a " perle bouton." In the course of growth the pearl may become involved in the general deposit of mother- of-pearl, and be ultimately buried in the substance of the shell. It has thus happened that fine pearls have occasionally been unexpectedly brought to light in cutting up mother-of-pearl in the workshop. When a pearl oyster is attacked by a boring parasite the mollusc protects itself by depositing nacreous matter at the point of invasion, thus forming a hollow body of irregular shape known as a " blister pearl." Hollow warty pearl is sometimes termed in trade " coq de perle." Solid pearls of irregular form are often produced by deposition on rough objects, such as small fragments of wood, and these, and in fact all irregular-shaped pearls, are termed " perles baroques," or " barrok pearls." It appears that the Romans in the period of the Decline restricted the name unio to the globular pearl, and termed the baroque margaritum. It was fashionable in the i6th and I7th centuries to mount curiously shaped baroques in gold and enamel so as to form ornamental objects of grotesque character. A valuable collection of such mounted pearls by Dinglinger is preserved in the Green vaults at Dresden. A pearl of the first water should possess, in jewelers' language, a perfect " skin " and a fine " orient "; that is to say, it must be of delicate texture, free from speck or flaw, and of clear almost translucent white colour, with a subdued iridescent sheen. It should also be perfectly spherical, or, if not, of a symmetrical pear-shape. On removing the outer layer of a pearl the sub- jacent surface is generally dull, like a dead fish-eye, but it occasionally happens that a poor pearl encloses a "lively kernel," and may therefore be improved by careful peeling. The most perfect pearl in existence is said to be one, known as " La Pelle- grina," in the museum of Zosima in Moscow; it is a perfectly globular Indian pearl of singular beauty, weighing 28 carats. The largest known pearl is one of irregular shape in the Beresford Hope collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum. This magnificent pearl weighs 3 oz., has a circumference of 4.5 in., and is surmounted by an enamelled and jewelled gold crown, forming a pendant of great value. Pearl Fisheries.— The ancients obtained their pearls chiefly from India and the Persian Gulf, but at the present time they are also procured from the Sulu seas, the coast of Australia, the shores of Central America and some of the South Pacific Islands. The ancient fisheries of Ceylon (Taprobane) are situated in the Gulf of Manaar, the fishing-banks lying from 6 to 8 m. off the western shore, a little to the south of the isle of Manaar. The Tinnevelly fishery is on the Madras side of the strait, near Tuticorin. These Indian fishing-grounds are under the control of government inspectors, who regulate the fisheries. The oysters yield the best pearls at about four years of age. Fishing generally com- mences in the second week in March, and lasts for from four to six weeks, according to the season. The boats are grouped in fleets of from sixty to seventy, and start usually at midnight so as to reach the oyster-banks at sunrise. Each boat generally carries ten divers. On reaching the bank a signal-gun is fired, and diving commences. A stone weighing about 40 Ib is attached to the cord by which the diver is let down. The divers work in pairs, one man diving while the other watches the signal-cord, drawing up the sink-stone first, then hauling up the baskets of oysters, and finally raising the diver himself. On an average the divers remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though exceptional instances are cited of men remaining below for as long as six minutes. After resting for a minute or two at the surface, the diver descends again; and so on, until exhausted, when he comes on board and watches the rope, while his comrade relieves him as diver. The native descends naked, carrying only a girdle for the support of the basket in which he places the pearl oysters. In his submarine work the diver makes skilful use of his toes. To arm himself against the attacks of the sharks and other fishes which infest the Indian waters he carries spikes of iron- wood; and the genuine Indian cliver never descends without the incantations of shark-charmers, one of whom accompanies the boat while others remain on shore. As a rule the diver is a short- lived man. The diving continues from sunrise to about noon, when a gun is fired. On the arrival of the fleet at shore the divers carry their oysters to a shed, where they are made up into four heaps, one of which is taken by the diver. The oysters are then sold by auction in lots' of 1000 each. The pearls, after removal from the dead oysters, are " classed " by passing through a number of small brass colanders, known as " baskets," the holes in the successive vessels being smaller and smaller. Having been sized in this way, they are sorted as to colour, weighed and valued. Since the days of the Macedonians pearl-fishing has been carried on in the Persian Gulf. It is said that the oyster-beds extend along the entire Arabian coast of the gulf, but the most important are on sandbanks off the islands of Bahrein. The chief centre of the trade is the port of Lingah. Most of the products of this fishery are known as " Bombay pearls," from the fact that many of the best are sold there. The shells usually present a dark colour about the edges, like that of " smoked pearl." The yellow-tinted pearls are sent chiefly to Bombay, while the whitest go to Bagdad. Very small pearls, much below a pea in size, are generally known as " seed-pearls," and these are valued in India and China as constituents of certain electuaries, while occasionally they are calcined for chunam, or lime, used with betel as a masticatory. There is a small pearl-fishery near Karachi on the coast of Bombay. From the time of the Ptolemies pearl-fishing has been prosecuted along the coast of the Red Sea, especially in the neighbourhood of Jiddah and Koseir. This fishery is now insignificant, but the Arabs still obtain from this district a quantity of mother-of-pearl shells, which are shipped from Alexandria, and come into the market as " Egyptians." Very fine pearls are obtained from the Sulu Archipelago, on the north-east of Borneo. The mother-of-pearl shells from the Sulu seas are characterized by a yellow colour on the border and back, which unfits them for many ornamental purposes. Pearl oysters are also abundant in the seas around the Aru Islands to the south-west of New Guinea. From Labuan a good many pearl-shells are occasionally sent to Singapore. They are also obtained from the neighbourhood of Timor, and from New Caledonia. The pearl oyster occurs throughout the Pacific, mostly in the clear water of the lagoons within the atolls, though fine shells are also found in deep water outside the coral reefs. The Polynesian divers do not employ sink-stones, and the women are said to be more skilful than the men. They anoint their bodies with oil before diving. Fine pearl-shells are obtained from Navigators' Islands, the Society Islands, the Low Archi- pelago or Paumota Isles and the Gambier Islands. Many of the Gambier pearls present a bronzy tint. Pearl-fishing is actively prosecuted along the western coast of Central America, especially in the Gulf of California, and to a less extent around the Pearl Islands in the Bay of Panama. The 26 PEARL fishing-grounds are in water about 40 ft. deep, and the season lasts for four months. An ordinary fishing-party expects to obtain about three tons of shells per day, and it is estimated that one shell in a thousand contains a pearl. The pearls are shipped in barrels from San Francisco and Panama. Some pearls of rare beauty have been obtained from the Bay of Mulege, near Los Coyetes, in the gulf of California; and in 1882 a pearl of 75 carats, the largest on record from this district, was found near La Paz in California. The coast of Guayaquil also yields pearls. Columbus found that pearl-fishing was carried on in his time in the Gulf of Mexico, and pearls are still obtained from the Carib- bean Sea. In the West Indies the best pearls are obtained from St Thomas and from the island of Margarita, off the coast of Venezuela. From Margarita Philip II. of Spain is said to have obtained in 1579 a famous pearl of 250 carats. Of late years good pearls have been found in Shark's Bay, on the coast of West Australia, especially in an inlet termed Useless Harbour. Mother-of-pearl shells are also fished at many other points along the western coast, between the i5th and 25th parallels of south latitude. An important pearl-fishery is also established in Torres Strait and on the coast of Queensland. The shells occur in water from four to six fathoms deep, and the divers are generally Malays and Papuans, though sometimes native Australians. On the western coast of Australia the pearl-shells are obtained by dredging rather than by diving. Pearl-shells have also been found at Port Darwin and in Oakley Creek, New Zealand. River pearls are produced by the species of Unio and Anodonta, especially by Unio margaritiferus. These species belong to the family Unionidae, order Eulamellebranchia. They inhabit the mountain- streams of temperate climates in the northern hemisphere^— especially in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria, Lapland and Canada. The pearls of Britain are mentioned by Tacitus and by Pliny, and a breastplate studded with British pearls was dedicated by Julius Caesar to Venus Genetrix. As early as 1355 Scotch pearls are referred to in a statute of the goldsmiths of Paris; and in the reign of Charles II. the Scotch pearl trade was sufficiently important to attract the attention of parliament. The Scotch pearl-fishery, after having declined for years, was revived in 1860 by a German named Moritz Unger, who visited Scotland and bought up all the pearls he could find in the hands of the peasan- try, thus leading to an eager search for more pearls the following season. It is estimated that in 1865 the produce of the seaso.i's fishing in the Scotch rivers was worth at least £12,000. This yield, however, was not maintained, and at the present time only a few pearls are obtained at irregular intervals by an occasional fisherman. The principal rivers in Scotland which have yielded pearls are the Spey, the Tay and the South Esk; and to a less extent the Doon, the Dee, the Don, the Ythan, the Teith, the Forth and many other streams. In North Wales the Conway was at one time celebrated for its pearls; and it is related that Sir Richard Wynn, chamberlain to the queen of Charles II., presented her with a Conway pearl which is believed to occupy a place in the British crown. In Ireland the rivers of Donegal, Tyrone and Wexford have yielded pearls. It is said that Sir John Hawkins the circumnavigator had a patent for pearl-fishing in the Irt in Cumberland. Although the pearl- fisheries of Britain are now neglected, it is otherwise with those of Germany. The most important of these are in the forest-streams of Bavaria, between Ratisbon and Passau. The Saxon fisheries are chiefly confined to the basin of the White Elster, and those of Bohemia to the Horazdiowitz district of Wotawa. For more than two centuries the Saxon fisheries have been carefully regulated by inspectors, who examine the streams every spring, and determine where fishing is to be permitted. After a tract has been fished over, it is left to rest for ten or fifteen years. The fisher-folk open the valves of the mussels with an iron instrument, and if they find no ptarl restore the mussel to the water. River pearls are found in many parts of the United States, and have been systematically worked in the Little Miami river, Warren county, Ohio, and also on the Mississippi, especially about Musca- tine, Iowa. The season extends from June to October. Japan produces fresh-water pearls, found especially in the Anodonta japonica. But it is in China that the culture of the pearl-mussel is carried to the greatest perfection. The Chinese also obtain marine pearls, and use a large quantity of mother-of-pearl for decorative purposes. More than twenty-two centuries before our era pearls are enumerated as a tribute or tax in China; and they are mentioned as products of the western part of the empire in the Rh'ya,_ a dictionary compiled earlier than 1000 B.C. A process for promoting the artificial formation of pearls in the Chinese river-mussels was discovered by Ye-jin-yang, a native of Hoochow, in the I3th century ; and this process is still extensively carried on near the city of Teh-tsing, where it forms the staple industry of several villages, and is said to give employment to about 5000 people. Large num- bers of the mussels are collected in May and June, and the valves of each are gently opened with a spatula to allow of the introduction of various foreign bodies, which are inserted by means of a forked bamboo stick. These " matrices " are generally pellets of prepared mud, but may be small bosses of bone, brass or wood. After a num- ber of these objects have been placed in convenient positions on one valve, the unfortunate mollusc is turned over and the operation is repeated on the other valve. The mussels are then placed in shallow ponds connected with the canals, and are nourished by tubs of night- soil being thrown in from time to time. After several months, in some cases two or three years, the mussels are removed, and the pearls which have formed over the matrices are cut from the shells, while the molluscs themselves serve as food. The matrix is generally extracted from the pearl and the cavity filled with white wax, the aperture being neatly sealed up so as to render the appearance of the pearl as perfect as possible. Millions of such pearls are annually sold at Soo-chow. The most curious of these Chinese pearls are those which present the form of small seated images of Buddha. The figures are cast in very thin lead, or stamped in tin, and are inserted as previously describe.d. Specimens of these Buddha pearls in the British Museum are referred to the species Dipsas plicala. It should be mentioned • that Linnaeus, probably ignorant of what had long been practised in China, demonstrated the possibility of producing artificial pearls in the fresh-water mussels of Sweden. Pink pearls are occasionally found in the great conch or fountain shell of the West Indies, Strombus gigas, L. ; but these, though much prized, are not nacreous, and their tint is apt to fade. They are also produced by the chank shell, Turbinella scolymus, L.1 Yellowish- brown pearls, of little or no value, are yielded by the Pinna squamosa, and bad-coloured concretions are formed by the Placuna placenta? ' Black pearls, which are very highly valued, are obtained chiefly from the pearl oyster of the Gulf of Mexico. The common marine mussel Mytilus edulis also produces pearls, which are, however, of little value. According to the latest researches the cause of pearl-formation is in most cases, perhaps in all, the dead body of a minute parasite within the tissues of a mollusc, around which nacreous deposit is secreted. The parasite is a stage in the life history of a Trema- tode in some cases, in others of a Cestode; that is to say of a form resembling the common liver-fluke of the sheep, or of a tape- worm. As long ago as 1852 Filippi of Turin showed that the species of Trematode Distomum duplicalum was the cause of a pearl formation in the fresh-water mussel Anodonta. Kuchen- meister subsequently investigated the question at Elster in Saxony and came to a different conclusion, namely that the central body of the pearl was a small specimen of a species of water mite which is a very common parasite of A nodonta. Filippi however states that the mite is only rarely found within a pearl, the Trematode occurring in the great majority of cases. R. Dubois and Dr H. Lyster Jameson have made special investi- gations of the process in the common mussel Mytilus edulis. The latter states that the pearl is produced in a sac which is situated beneath the epidermis of the mantle and is lined by an epithelium. This epithelium is not derived from the cells of the epidermis but from the internal connective-tissue cells. This statement, if correct, is contrary to what would be expected, for calcareous matter is usually secreted by the external epidermis only. The sac or cyst is formed by the larva of a species of Trematode belonging to the genus Leucilhodendrium, a species closely resembling and probably identical with L. somateriac, which lives in the adult state in the eider duck. At Billiers, Morbihan, in France, the host of the adult Trematode is another species of duck, namely the common Scoter, Oedemia nigra, which is notorious in the locality for its avidity for mussels. Trema- todes of the family Distomidae, to which the parasite under consideration belongs, usually have three hosts in each of which they pass different stages of the life history. In this case the first host at Billiers is a species of bivalve called Tapes decussatus, but at Piel in Lancashire there are no Tapes and the first stages of the parasite are found in the common cockle. The Trematode enters the first host as a minute newly hatched embryo and 1 Strombus gigas, L., is a Gastropod belonging to the family Strombidae, of the order Pectinibranchia. Turbinella scolymus, Lam., is a Gastropod of the same order. 2 Placuna placenta, L., belongs to the family Anomiidae; it is found on the shores of North Australia. Pinna squamosa, Gmelin, belongs to the Ostreacea; it occurs in the Mediterranean. Both are Lamellibranchs. PEARL, THE 27 leaves it in the form called Cercaria, which is really an immature condition of the adult. The Cercaria makes its way into the tissues of a mussel and there becomes enclosed in the cyst previously described. If the mussel is then swallowed by the •duck the Cercariae develop into adult Trematodes or flukes in the liver or intestines of the bird. In the mussels which escape being devoured the parasites cannot develop further, and they die and become embedded in the nacreous deposit which forms a pearl. Dr Jameson points out that, as in other cases, pearls in Mytilus are common in certain special localities and rare elsewhere, and that the said localities are those where the parasite and its hosts are plentiful. The first suggestion that the most valuable pearls obtained from pearl oysters in tropical oceans might be due to parasites was made by Kelaart in reports to the government of Ceylon in 1857-1859. Recently a special investigation of the Ceylon pearl fishery has been organized by Professor Herdman. Herdman and Hornell find that in the pearl oyster of Ceylon Margaritifera vulgaris, -Schum, the nucleus of the pearl is, in all specimens examined, the larva of a Cestode or tapeworm. This larva is of globular form and is of the type known as a cysticercus. As in the case of the mussel the larva dies in its cyst and its remains are enshrined in nacreous deposit, so that, as a French writer has said, the ornament associated in all ages with beauty and riches is nothing but the brilliant sarcophagus of a worm. The cysticercus described by Herdman and Hornell has on the surface a muscular zone within which is a depression containing a papilla which can be protruded. It was at first identified as the larva of a tapeworm called Tetrarhynchus, and Professor Herdman concluded that the life-history of the pearl parasite consisted of four stages, the first being exhibited by free larvae which were taken at the surface of the sea, the second that in the pearl oyster, the third a form found in the bodies of file-fishes which feed on the oysters, and the fourth or adult stage living in some species of large ray. It has not however been proved that the pearl parasite is a Tetrarhynchus, nor that it is connected with the free larva or the form found in the file-fish, Balistes; nor has the adult form been identified. All that is certain is that the pearls are due to the presence of a parasite which is the larva of a Cestode; all the rest is probability or possibility. A French naturalist, M. Seurat, studying the pearl oyster of the Gambier Archipelago in the Pacific, found that pearl formation was due to a parasite quite similar to that described by Herdman and Hornell. This parasite was described by Professor Giard as characterized by a rostrum armed with a single terminal sucker and he did not identify it with TetrarHynchus. Genuine precious pearls and the most valuable mother-of-pearl are produced by various species and varieties of the genus Meleagrina of Lamarck, for which Dr Jameson in his recent revision of the species prefers the name Margaritifera. The genus is represented in tropical regions in all parts of the world. It belongs to the family Aviculidae, which is allied to the Pectens or scallop shells. In this family the hinge border is straight and prolonged into two auriculae; the foot has a very stout byssus. Meleagrina is distinguished by the small size or complete absence of the posterior auricula. The species are as follows. The type species is Meleagrina margaritifera, which has no teeth on the hinge. Geographical races are distinguished by different names in the trade. Specimens from the Malay Archipelago have a dark band along the margin of the nacre and are known as black-edged Banda shell ; those from Australia and New Guinea and the neighbouring islands of the western Pacific are called Australian and New Guinea black-lip. Another variety occurs in Tahiti, Gambier Islands and Eastern Polynesia generally, yielding both pearls and shell. It occurs also in China, Ceylon, the Andaman Islands and the Maldives. Another form is taken at Zanzibar, Mada- gascar, and the neighbouring islands, and is called Zanzibar and Madagascar shell. Bombay shell is another local form fished in the Persian Gulf and shipped via Bombay. The Red Sea variety is known as Egyptian shell. Another variety occurs along the west coast of America and from Panama to Vancouver, and supplies Panama shell and some pearls. A larger form, attaining a foot in diameter and a weight of 10 Ib per pair of shells, is considered as a distinct species by Dr Jameson and named Margaritifera maxima. It is found along the north coast of Australia and New Guinea and the Malay Archipelago. The nacreous surface of this shell is white, without the black or dark margin of the common species; it is known in the trade as the silver-lip, gold-lip and by other names. It is the most valuable species of mother-of-pearl oyster. Dr Jameson distinguishes in addition to the above thirty-two species of Margaritifera or- Meleagrina; all these have rudimentary teeth on the hinge. The most important species is Meleagrina vulgaris, to which belong the pearl oyster of Ceylon and southern India, the lingah shell of the Persian Gulf and the pearl oyster of the Red Sea. Since the opening of the Suez Canal the latter form has invaded the Mediterranean, specimens having been taken at Alexandria and at Malta, and attempts have been made to cultivate it on the French coast. The species occurs also on the coasts of the Malay Peninsula, Australia and New Guinea, where it is fished both for its shells (Australian lingah) and for pearls. Two species occur on the coasts of South Africa but have no market value. Melea- grina carchariarum is the Shark's Bay shell of the London market. It is taken in large quantities at Shark's Bay, Western Australia, and is of rather small value; it also yields pearls of inferior quality. The pearl oyster of Japan, known as Japan lingah, is probably a variety of Meleagrina vulgaris. Meleagrina radiata is the West Indian pearl oyster. The largest and steadiest consumption of mother-of-pearl is in the button trade, and much is also consumed by cutlers for handles of fruit and dessert knives and forks, pocket-knives, &c. It is also used in the inlaying of Japanese and Chinese lacquers, European lacquered papier-mache work, trays, &c., and as an ornamental inlay generally. The carving of pilgrim shells and the elaboration of crucifixes and ornamental work in mother-of-pearl is a distinctive industry of the monks and other inhabitants of Bethlehem. Among the South Sea Islands the shell is largely fashioned into fishing-hooks. Among shells other than those of Meleagrina margaritifera used as mother-of-pearl may be mentioned the Green Ear or Ormer shell (Haliotis tuberculata) and several other species of Haliotis, besides various species of Turbo. Artificial pearls were first made in western Europe in 1 680 by Jacquin, a rosary-maker in Paris, and the trade is now largely carried on in France, Germany and Italy. Spheres of thin glass are filled with a preparation known as " essence d'orient," made from the silvery scales of the bleak or " ablette," which is caused to adhere to the inner wall of the globe, and the cavity is then filled with white wax. Many imitation pearls are now formed of an opaline glass of nacreous lustre, and the soft appearance of the pearl obtained by the judicious use of hydrofluoric acid. An excellent substitute for black pearl is found in the so-called " ironstone jewelry," and consists of close-grained haematite, not too highly polished ; but the great density of the haematite immediately destroys the illusion. Pink pearls are imitated by turning small spheres out of the rosy part of the conch shell, or even out of pink coral. See Clements R. Markham, " The Tinnevelly Pearl Fishery," in Journ. Soc. Arts (1867), xv., 256; D. T. Macgowan, " Pearls and Pearl-making in China," ibid. (1854), ii. 72; F. Hague, "On the Natural and Artificial Production of Pearls in China," in Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc. (1856), vol. xvi.; H. J. Le Beck, " Pearl Fishery in the Gulf of Manar," in Asiatic Researches (1798), v. 393; K. Mobius, Dieechten Perlen (Hamburg, 1857); H. Lyster Jameson, " Formation of Pearls," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1902), pi. I ; idem, " On the Identity and Distribution of Mother-of- Pearl Oysters," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1901), pi. i, pp. 372-394; Herdman and Hornell, Rep. Ceylon Pearl Fisheries (London, Royal Soc., 1903) ; and Kunz and Stevenson, Book of the Pearl (New York, 1908), with bibliography. (J. T. C.) PEARL, THE. The Middle-English poem known as Pearl, or The Pearl, is preserved in the unique manuscript Cotton Nero Ax at the British Museum ; in this volume are contained also the poems Cleanness, Patience, and Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight. All the pieces are in the same handwriting, and from internal evidences of dialect, style and parallel references, it is now generally accepted that the poems are all by the same author. The MS., which is quaintly illustrated, belongs to the end of the I4th or the beginning of the isth century, and appears to be but little later than the date of composition ; no line of Pearl or of the other poems is elsewhere to be found. Pearl is a poet's lament for the loss of a girl-child, " who lived not upon earth two years " — the poet is evidently the child's father. In grief he visits the little grave, and there in a vision beholds his Pearl, now transfigured as a queen of heaven — he sees her beneath " a crystal rock," beyond a stream ; the dreamer would fain cross over, but cannot. From the opposite bank Pearl, grown in wisdom as in stature, instructs him in lessons of faith and resignation, expounds to him the mystery of her transfiguration, and leads him to a glimpse of the New Jerusalem. Suddenly the city is filled with glorious maidens, who in long procession glide towards the throne, all of them clad in white, pearl-bedecked robes as Pearl herself. And there he sees, too, " his little queen." A great- love- longing possesses him to be by her. He must needs plunge PEARSALL— PEARSON, C. H. into the stream that keeps him from her. In the very effort the dreamer awakes, to find himself resting upon the little mound where his Pearl had " strayed below ": — " I roused me, and fell in great dismay, And, sighing, to myself I said: Now all be to that Prince's pleasure." The poem consists of one hundred and one stanzas, each oi twelve lines, with four accents, rhymed ab, ab, ab, ab, be, be; the versification combines rhyme with alliteration; trisyllabic effects add to the easy movement and lyrical charm of the lines. Five stanzas (in one case six), with the same refrain, constitute a section, of which accordingly there are twenty in all, the whole sequence being linked together by the device of making the first line of each stanza catch up the refrain of the previous verse, the last line of the poem re-echoing the first line. The author was not the creator of this form, nor was he the last to use it. The extant pieces in the metre are short religious poems, some of the later (e.g. God's Complaint, falsely attributed to Scottish authorship) revealing the influence of Pearl. The dialect is West Midland, or rather North- West Midland, and the vocabulary is remarkable for the blending of native speech with Scandinavian and Romance elements, the latter partly Anglo-French, and partly learned French, due to the author's knowledge of French literature. " While the main part of the poem," according to Gollancz, " is a paraphrase of the closing chapters of the Apocalypse and the parable of the Vineyard, the poet's debt to the Romaunt of the Rose is noteworthy, more particularly in the description of the wonderful land through which the dreamer wanders; and it can be traced throughout the poem, in the personification of Pearl as Reason, in the form of the colloquy, in the details of dress and ornament, in many a characteristic word, phrase and reference. ' The river from the throne,' in the Apocalypse, here meets ' the waters of the wells ' devised by Sir Mirth for the Garden of the Rose. From these two sources, the Book of Revelation, with its almost Celtic glamour, and The Romaunt of the Rose, with its almost Oriental allegory, are derived much of the wealth and brilliancy of the poem. The poet's fancy revels in the richness of the heavenly and the earthly paradise, but his fancy is subordinated to his earnestness and intensity." The leading motifs of Pearl are to be found in the Gospel — in the allegory of the merchant who sold his all to purchase one pearl of great price, and in the words, so fraught with solace for the child-bereft, " for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven." Naturally arising from the theme, and from these motifs, some theological problems of the time are touched upon, or treated somewhat too elaborately perhaps, and an attempt has been made to demonstrate that Pearl is merely allegorical and theological, and not really a lament. Those who hold this view surely ignore or fail to recognize the subtle personal touches whereby the poem transcends all its theological interests, and makes its simple and direct appeal to the human heart. Herein, too, lies its abiding charm, over and above the poetical talent, the love of nature, colour and the picturesque, the technical skill, and the descriptive power, which in a high degree belonged to the unknown poet. Various theories have been advanced as to the authorship of Pearl and the other poems in the manuscript. The claims of Huchown " of the Awle Ryale " have been vigorously (but unsuccessfully) advocated; the case in favour of Ralph Strode (Chaucer's " philosophical Strode ") — the most attractive of all the theories — is still, unfortunately, " not proven." By piecing together the personal indications to be found in the poems an imaginary biography of the poet may be constructed. It may safely be inferred that he was born about 1330, somewhere in Lancashire, or a little to the north ; that he delighted in open- air life, in woodcraft and sport; that his early life was passed amid the gay scenes that brightened existence in medieval hall and bower; that he availed himself of opportunities of study, theology and romance alike claiming him; that he wedded, and had a child named Margery or Marguerite — the Daisy, or the Pearl — at whose death his happiness drooped and life's joy ended. The four poems are closely linked and belong to one period of the poet's career. In Gawayne, probably the first of the four, the poet is still the minstrel rejoicing in the glamour of the Arthurian tale, but using it, in almost Spenserian spirit, to point a moral. In Pearl the minstrel has become the elegiac poet, harmonizing the old Teutonic form with the newer Romance rhyme. In Cleanness he has discarded all attractions of form, and writes, in direct alliterative metre, a stern homily on chastity. In Patience — a homiletic paraphrase of ^onah — he appears to be autobiographical, reminding himself, while teaching others, that " Poverty and Patience are needs playfellows." He had evidently fallen on evil days. It is noteworthy that soon after 1358 Boccaccio wrote his Latin eclogue Olympia in memory of his young daughter Violante. A comparative study of the two poems is full of interest; the direct influence of the Latin on the English poem is not so clear as has been maintained. Pearl cannot be placed earlier than 1360; it is most probably later than Olympia. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Texts and Translations: Early Alliterative Poems in the West Midland Dialect of the fourteenth Century (edited by Richard Morris, Early English Text Society I. 1864; revised, 1869, 1885, 1896, 1901); Pearl, an English Poem of the Fourteenth Century, edited, with a Modern Rendering, by Israel Gollancz (with frontispiece by Holman Hunt, and prefatory lines, sent to the editor by Tennyson) ; revised edition of the text, privately printed, 1897; new edition of text and translation, " King's Classics, 1910- 1911; Facsimile of MS. Cotton Nero Ax, 1910-1911; The Pearl, (edited by C. G. Osgood; Boston, 1906). Translations by Gollancz (as above) ; G. G. Coulton (1906) ; Osgood (1907) ; Miss Mead (1908) ; Miss Jewett (1908); part of the poem, by S. Weir Mitchell (1906). Literary History: Tenbrink, History of English Literature (trans- lated by H. M. Kennedy, 1889, i. 336-351); G. Nelson, Huchown of the Awle Ryale (Glasgow, 1902) ; Carletpn Brown, The Author of the Pearl, considered in the Light of his Theological Opinions (publications of the Modern Languages Association of America, xix. 115-153; 1904); W. G. Schofield, The Nature and Fabric of the Pearl (ibid. pp. 154-215; 1904); also Symbolism, Allegory and Autobiography (ibid. xxiv. 585-675; 1909); I. Gollancz, Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. i. ch. xv. Works connected with Pearl: Sir Gawayne, a Collection of Ancient Romance Poems (edited by Sir F. Madden; London, 1839); Sir Gawayne (re-edited by Richard Morris, E.E.T.S., 1864, 1869; text revised by I. Gollancz, 1893); The Parlement of the Thre Ages, and Wynnere and Wastoure (edited by I. Gollancz: London, 1897); Hymns to the Virgin and Christ (edited by F. J. Furnivall, E.E.T.S., 1867) ; Political, Religious and Love Poems (edited by F. J. Furnivall, E.E.T.S., 1866, 1903). Metre. — Clark S. Northup, Study of the Metrical Structure of the Pearl (publications of the Modern Languages Association, xii. 326-340). Phonology. — W. Fick, Zum mittelenglischen Gedicht von der Perle (Kiel, 1885). (I. G.) PEARSALL, ROBERT LUCAS DE (1795-1856), English composer, was born on the i4th of March 17951 at Clifton. Educated for the bar, he practised till 1825, when he left England for Germany and studied composition under Panny of Mainz; with the exception of three comparatively short visits to England, during one of which he made the acquaintance of the English school of madrigals, he lived abroad, selling his family property of Willsbridge and settling in the castle of Wartensee, on the lake of Constance. He produced many works of lasting beauty, nearly all of them for voices in combination: from his part songs, such as " Oh, who will o'er the downs ? " to bis elaborate and scholarly madrigals, such as the admirable eight-part compositions, " Great God of Love " and " Lay a Garland," or the beautiful " Light of my Soul." His reception into the Roman Church in his later years may have suggested the composition of some beautiful sacred music, among other things a fine " Salve Regina." He wrote many valuable treatises on music, and edited a Roman Catholic hymn-book. He died on the 5th of August 1856. PEARSON, CHARLES HENRY (1830-1894), British historian and colonial statesman, was born in London on the 7th of September 1830. After receiving his early education at Rugby and King's College, London, he went up to Oxford, where he PEARSON, J.— PEARSON, J. L. was generally regarded as the most brilliant of an exceptionally able set, and in 1854 obtained a fellowship at Oriel College. His constitutional weakness and bad eyesight forced him to abandon medicine, which he had adopted as a career, and in 1855 he returned to King's College as lecturer in English language and literature, a post which he almost immediately quitted for the professorship of modern history. He made numerous journeys abroad, the most important being his visit to Russia in 1858, his account of which was published anonymously in 1859 under the title of Russia, by a Recent Traveller; an adven- turous journey through Poland during the insurrection of 1863, of which he gave a sympathetic and much praised account in the Spectator; and a visit to the United States in 1868, where he gathered materials for his subsequent discussion of the negro problem in his National Life and Character. In the meantime, besides contributing regularly, first to the Saturday Review and then to the Spectator, and editing the National Review, he wrote the first volume of The Early and Middle Ages of England (1861). The work was bitterly attacked by Freeman, whose " extrava- gant Saxonism " Pearson had been unable to adopt. It appeared in 1868 in a revised form with the title of History of England during the Early and Middle Ages, accompanied by a second volume which met with general recognition. Still better was the reception of his admirable Maps of England in the First Thirteen Centuries (1870). But as the result of these labours he was threatened with total blindness; and, disappointed of receiving a professorship at Oxford, in 1871 he emigrated to Australia. Here he married and settled down to the life of a sheep-farmer; but finding his health and eyesight greatly improved, he came to Melbourne as lecturer on history at the university. Soon afterwards he became head master of the Presbyterian Ladies' College, and in this position practically organized the whole system of higher education for women in Victoria. On his election in 1878 to the Legislative Assembly he definitely adopted politics as his career. His views on the land question and secular education aroused the bitter hostility of the rich squatters and the clergy; but his singular nobility of character, no less than his powers of mind, made him one of the most influential men in the Assembly. He was minister without portfolio in the Berry cabinet (1880-1881), and as minister of education in the coalition government of 1886 to 1890 he was able to pass into law many of the recommendations of his report. His reforms entirely remodelled state education in Victoria. In 1892 a fresh attack of illness decided him to return to England. Here he published in 1893 the best known of his works, National Life and Character. It is an attempt to show that the white man can flourish only in the temperate zones, that the yellow and black races must increase out of all propor- tion to the white, and must in time crush out his civilization. He died in London on the 29th of May 1894. A volume of his Reviews and Critical Essays was published in 1896, and was followed in 1900 by his autobiography, a work of great interest. PEARSON, JOHN (1612-1686), English divine and scholar, was born at Great Snoring, Norfolk, on the 28th of February 1612. From Eton he passed to Queen's College, Cambridge, and was elected a scholar of King's in April 1632, and a fellow in 1634. On taking orders in 1639 he was collated to the Salisbury prebend of Nether-Avon. In 1640 he was appointed chaplain to the lord-keeper Finch, by whom he was presented to the living of Thorington in Suffolk. In the Civil War he acted as chaplain to George Goring's forces in the west. In 1654 he was made weekly preacher at St Clement's, Eastcheap, in London. With Peter Gunning he disputed against two Roman Catholics on the subject of schism, a one-sided account of which was printed in Paris by one of the Roman Catholic disputants, under the title Scisme Unmask't (1658). Pearson also argued against the Puritan party, and was much interested in Brian Walton's polyglot Bible. In 1659 he published in London his celebrated Exposition of the Creed, dedicated to his parishioners of St Clement's, Eastcheap, to whom the substance of the work had been preached several years before. In the same year he 29 published the Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr John Hales of Eton, with an interesting memoir. Soon after the Restoration he was presented by Juxon, bishop of London, to the rectory of St Christopher-le-Stocks; and in 1660 he was created doctor of divinity at Cambridge, appointed a royal chaplain, prebendary of Ely, archdeacon of Surrey, and master of Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1661 he was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity; and on the first day of the ensuing year he was nominated one of the commissioners for the review of the liturgy in the conference held at the Savoy. There he won the esteem of his opponents and high praise from Richard Baxter. On the i4th of April 1662 he was made master of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1667 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1672 he published at Cambridge Vindiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii, in 4to, in answer to Jean Daille. His defence of the authenticity of the letters of Ignatius has been confirmed by J. B. Lightfoot and other recent scholars. Upon the death of John \yilkins in 1672, Pearson was appointed to the bishopric of Chester. In 1682 his Annales cyprianici were published at Oxford, with John Fell's edition of that father's works. He died at Chester on the i6th of July 1686. His last work, the Two Dissertations on the Succession and Times of the First Bishops of Rome, formed with the Annales Paulini the principal part of his Opera posthuma, edited by Henry Dodwell in 1688. See the memoir in Biographia Britannica, and another by Edward Churton, prefixed to the edition of Pearson's Minor Theological Works (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). Churton also edited almost the whole of the theological writings. PEARSON, JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH (1817-1897), English architect, son of William Pearson, etcher, of Durham, was born in Brussels on the 5th of July 1817. He was articled at the age of fourteen to Ignatius Bonomi, architect, of Durham, but soon removed to London, and worked under the elder Hardwicke. He revived and practised largely the art of vaulting, and acquired in it a proficiency unrivalled in his generation. He was, however, by no means a Gothic purist, and was also fond of Renaissance and thoroughly grounded in classical architecture. From the erection of his first church of EUerker, in Yorkshire, in 1843, to that of St Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1864, his buildings are Geometrical in manner and exhibit a close adherence to pre- cedent, but elegance of proportion and refinement of detail lift them out of the commonplace of mere imitation. Holy Trinity, Westminster (1848), and St Mary's, Dalton Holme (1858), are notable examples of this phase. St Peter's, Vauxhall (1864), his first groined church, was also the first of a series of buildings which brought Pearson to the forefront among his contempor- aries. In these he applied the Early English style to modern needs and modern economy with unrivalled success. St Augus- tine's, Kilburn (1871), St John's, Red Lion Square, London (1874), St Alban's, Birmingham (1880), St Michael's, Croydon (1880), St John's, Norwood (1881), St Stephen's, Bournemouth (1889), and All Saints', Hove (1889), are characteristic examples of his matured work. He is best known by Truro Cathedral (1880), which has a special interest in its apt incorporation of the south aisle of the ancient church. Pearson's conservative spirit fitted him for the reparation of ancient edifices, and among cathedrals and other historical buildings placed under his care were Lincoln, Chichester, Peterborough, Bristol and Exeter Cathedrals, St George's Chapel, Windsor, Westminster Hall and Westminster Abbey, in the surveyorship of which last he succeeded Sir G. G. Scott. Except as to the porches, the work of Scott, he re-faced the north transept of Westminster Abbey, and also designed the vigorous organ cases. In his hand- ling of ancient buildings he was repeatedly opposed by the ultra anti-restorers (as in the case of the west front of Peterborough Cathedral in 1896), but he generally proved the soundness of his judgment by his executed work. Pearson's practice was not confined to church building. Treberfydd House (1850), Quar Wood (1858), Lechlade Manor, an Elizabethan house (1873), Westwood House, Sydenham, in the French Renaissance style (1880), the Astor estate offices (1892) upon the Victoria PEARY Embankment, London, the remodelling of the interiors of Clieveden House (1893) and No. 18 Carlton House Terrace (1894), with many parsonages, show his aptitude for domestic architec- ture. In general design he first aimed at form, embracing both proportion and contour; and his work may be recognized by accurate scholarship coupled with harmonious detail. Its key- notes are cautiousness and refinement rather than boldness. He died on the nth of December 1897, and was buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey, where his grave is marked by the appropriate motto Sustinuit et abstinuit. He was elected A.R.A. in 1874, R.A. in 1880, was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and a fellow and member of the Council of the Royal Institute of British Architects. The following are some of Pearson's more important works, not already named: Ferriby church (1846); Stow, Lincolnshire (restoration, 1850) ; Weybridge, St James's (1853) ; Freeland church, parsonage and schools (1866) ; Kilbuin, St Peter's Home (1868) ; Wentworth church (1872); Horsforth church (1874); Cullercoats, St George's (1882) ; Chiswick, St Michaells (restoration, 1882) ; Great Yarmouth church (restoration, 1883); Liverpool, St Agnes' (1883); Woking Convalescent Home (1884); Headingley church (1884); Torquay, All Saints (1884); Maidstone, All Saints (restoration, 1885); Shrewsbury Abbey (1886); Ayr, Holy Trinity (1886); Hythe church (restoration, 1887); Oxford, New College, reredos (com- pletion, 1889); Cambridge University Library (additions, 1889); Friern Barnet, St John's (1890); Cambridge, Sidney Sussex College (additions, 1890); Middlesex Hospital chapel (1890); Bishopsgate, St Helen's (restoration, 1891); Maida Hill (Irvingite) church (1891); Barking, All Hallows (restoration, 1893) ; Cambridge, Emmanuel College (additions, 1893); Ledbury, St Michael's (restoration, 1894); Malta, Memorial church (1894); Port Talbot church (1895). (W. D. C.) PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (1856- ), American Arctic explorer, was born at Cresson, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of May 1856. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1877, and in 1881 became a civil engineer in the U.S. navy with the rank of lieuten- ant. In 1884 he was appointed assistant-engineer in connexion with the surveys for the Nicaragua Ship Canal, and in 1887-1888 he was in charge of these surveys. In 1886 he obtained leave of absence for a summer excursion to Disco Bay on the west coast of Greenland. From this point he made a journey of nearly a hundred miles into the interior, and the experience impressed him with the practicability of using this so-called inland ice-cap as a highway for exploration. In 1891 he organized an expedi- tion under the auspices of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The party of seven included Lieut. Peary's wife, the first white woman to accompany an Arctic ex- pedition. After wintering in Inglefield Gulf on the north- west coast of Greenland, in the following spring Lieut. Peary, with a young Norwegian, Eivind Astrup, crossed the inland ice-cap along its northern limit to the north-east of Greenland and back. The practical geographical result of this journey was to establish the insularity of Greenland. Valuable work was also performed by the expedition in the close study which was made of the isolated tribe of the Cape York or Smith Sound Eskimos, the most northerly people in the world.1 Lieut. Peary was able to fit out another Arctic expedition in 1893, and was again accompanied by Mrs Peary, who gave birth to a daughter at the winter quarters in Inglefield Gulf. The expedition returned in the season of 1894, leaving Peary with his coloured servant Henson and Mr Hugh G. Lee to renew the attempt to cross the inland ice in the next year. This they succeeded in doing, but without being able to carry the work of exploration any farther on the opposite side of Greenland. During a summer excursion to Melville Bay in 1894, Peary discovered three large meteorites, which supplied the Eskimos with the material for their iron implements, as reported by Sir John Ross in 1818, and on his return in 1895 he brought the two smaller ones with him. The remaining meteorite was brought to New York in 1897. In 1898 Lieut. Peary published Northward over the Great Ice, a record of all his expeditions up to that time, and in the same year he started * A narrative of the expedition written by Mrs Peary, and con- taining an account of the " Great White Journey across Greenland," by her husband, was published under the title of My Arctic Journal. on another expedition to the Arctic regions. In this and sub- sequent expeditions he received financial aid from Mr Morris Jesup and the Peary Arctic Club. The greatest forethought was bestowed upon the organization of the expedition, a four- years' programme being laid down at the outset and a system of relief expeditions provided for. A distinctive feature was the utilization of a company of Eskimos. Although unsuccessful as regards the North Pole, the expedition achieved the accurate survey (1900) of the northern limit of the Greenland continent and the demanstration that beyond it lay a Polar ocean. In 1902 Peary with Henson and an Eskimo advanced as far north as lat. 84° 17' 27", the highest point then reached in the western hemisphere. Lieut. Peary had now been promoted to the rank of Commander, and on his return he was elected president of the American Geographical Society. In November 1903 he went to England on a naval commission to inquire into the system of naval barracks in Great Britain, and was presented with the Livingstone Gold Medal of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Commander Peary then began preparations for another expedition by the con- struction of a special ship, named the " Roosevelt," the first ever built in the United States for the purpose of Arctic exploration. He sailed from New York on the i6th of July 1905, having two years' supplies on board. The " Roosevelt " wintered on the north coast of Grant Land, and on the 2ist of February a start was made with sledges. The party experienced serious delay owing to open water between 84° and 85°, and farther north the ice was opened up during a six days' gale, which cut off communications and destroyed the depots which had been established. A steady easterly drift was experienced. But on the 2ist of April, 1906, 87°6' was reached — the"farthest north " attained by man — by which time Peary and his com- panions were suffering severe privations, and had to make the return journey in the face of great difficulties. They reached the north coast of Greenland and subsequently rejoined the ship, from which, after a week's rest, Peary made a sledge journey along the north coast of Grant Land. Returning home, the expedition reached Hebron, Labrador, on the i3th of October, the " Roosevelt " having been nearly wrecked en route. In 1907 the narrative of this journey, Nearest the Pole, was published. In 1908 Peary started in the " Roosevelt " on the journey which was to bring him his final success. He left Etah on the i8th of August, wintered in Grant Land, and set forward over the ice from Cape Columbia on the ist of March 1909. A party of six started with him, and moved in sections, one in front of another. They were gradually sent back as supplies diminished. At the end of the month Captain Bartlett was the only white man left with Peary, and he turned back in 87° 48' N., the highest latitude then ever reached. Peary, with his negro servant and four Eskimos, pushed on, and on the 6th of April 1909 reached the North Pole. They remained some thirty hours, took obser- vations, and on sounding, a few miles from the pole, found no bottom at 1500 fathoms. The party, with the exception of one drowned, returned safely to the " Roosevelt," which left her winter quarters on the i8th of July and reached Indian Harbour on the sth of September. Peary's The North Pole: Its Discovery in igog was published in 1910. Just before the news came of Peary's success another American explorer, Dr F. A. Cook (b. 1865), returning from Greenland to Europe on a Danish ship, claimed that he had reached the North Pole on the 2ist of April 1908. He had accompanied an expedition northward in 1907, prepared to attempt to reach the Pole if opportunity offered, and according to his own story had done so, leaving his party and taking only some Eskimos, early in 1908. Nothing had been heard of him since March of that year, and it was supposed that he had perished. Cook's claim to have forestalled Peary was at first credited in various circles, and he was given a rapturous reception at Copenhagen; but scientific opinion in England and America was more reserved, and eventually, after a prolonged dispute, a special committee of the university of Copenhagen, to whom his documents were submitted, declared that they PEASANT— PECAUT contained no proof that he had reached the Pole. By that time most other people had come to an adverse conclusion and the sensation was over. PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan"), a countryman or rustic, either working for others, or, more specifically, owning or renting and working by his own labour a small plot of ground. Though a word of not very strict application, it is now frequently used of the rural population of such countries as France, where the land is chiefly held by small holders, " peasant proprietors." (See ALLOTMENTS and METAYAGE). PEASE, EDWARD (1767-1858), the founder of a famous industrial Quaker family in the north of England, was born at Darlington on the 315! of May 1767, his father, Joseph Pease (1737-1808), being a woollen manufacturer in that town. Having retired from this business Edward Pease made the acquaintance of George Stephenson, and with him took a prominent part in constructing the railway between Stockton and Darlington. He died at Darlington on the 3ist of July 1858. His second son, Joseph Pease (1799-1872), who assisted his father in his railway enterprises, was M.P. for South Durham from 1832 to 1841, being the first Quaker to sit in parliament. He was interested in collieries, quarries and ironstone mines in Durham and North Yorkshire, as well as in cotton and woollen manu- factures; and he was active in educational and philanthropic work. Another son, Henry Pease (1807-1881), was M.P. for South Durham from 1857 to 1865. Like all the members of his family he was a supporter of the Peace Society, and in its interests he visited the emperor Nicholas of Russia just before the outbreak of the Crimean War, and later the emperor of the French, Napoleon III. / Joseph Pease's eldest son, Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease (1828- 1903), was made a baronet in 1882. He was M.P. for South Durham from 1865 to 1885 and for the Barnard Castle division of Durham from 1885 to 1903. His elder son, Sir Alfred Edward .Pease (b. 1857), who succeeded to the baronetcy, became famous as a hunter of big game, and was M.P. for York from 1885 to 1892 and for the Cleveland division of Yorkshire from 1897 to 1902. A younger son, Joseph Albert Pease (b. 1860), entered parliament in 1892, and in 1908 became chief Liberal whip, being advanced to the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1910. Another son of Joseph Pease was Arthur Pease (1837-1898), member of parliament from 1880 to 1885 and again from 1895 to 1898. His son, Herbert Pike Pease (b. 1867), M.P. for Darlington 1898-1910, was one of the Unionist Whips. The Diaries of Edward Pease were edited by Sir Alfred Pease in 1907. PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. pelia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt, pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion), a product of decayed vegetation found in the form of bogs in many parts of the world. The continent of Europe is estimated to contain 212,700 sq. m. of bog; Ireland has 2,858,150 acres, Canada 30,000,000 acres, and the United States 20,000,000 acres. The plants which give origin to these deposits are mainly aquatic, including reeds, rushes, sedges and mosses. Sphagnum is present in most peats, but in Irish peat Thacomitrum lanugino- sum predominates. It seems that the disintegration of the vegetable tissues is effected partly by moist atmospheric oxida- tion and partly by anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi, in depressions containing fairly still but not stagnant water, which is retained by an impervious bed or underlying strata. As decomposition proceeds the products become waterlogged and sink to the bottom of the pool; in the course of time the deposits attain a considerable thickness, and the lower layers, under the superincumbent pressure of the water and later deposits, are gradually compressed and carbonized. The most favourable conditions appear to be a moist atmosphere, and a mean annual temperature of about 45° F. ; no bogs are found between latitudes 45° N. and 45° S. Peat varies from a pale yellow or brown fibrous substance, resembling turf or compressed hay, containing conspicuous plant remains, to a compact dark brown material, resembling black clay when wet, and some varieties of lignite when dry. Two typical forms may be noticed: " Hill peat " (the mountain or brown bogs of Ireland), found in mountainous districts, and consisting mainly of Sphagnum and Andromeda; and " Bottom peat " (the lowland or red bogs of Ireland), found in lakes, rivers, and brooks, and containing Hypnum. It always contains much water, up to 90%, which it is necessary to remove before the product can be efficiently employed as a fuel, and for most other purposes. A specimen dried at 100° C. had the composi- tion: carbon = 60-48%, hydrogen = 6- 10%, oxygen = 32-55%, nitrogen = 0-88%, ash = 3~3O%; the ash is very variable — from i to 65 % — and consists principally of clay and sand, with lesser amounts of ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, &c. The specific gravity has been variously given, owing to the variable water content and air spaces; when dried and compressed, however, it is denser than water. Peat-winning presents certain special features. The general practice is to cut a trench about a foot deep with a peculiarly shaped spade, termed in Ireland a " slane," and remove sods from 3 to 4 ft. long. When one layer has been removed, the next is attacked, and so on. If the deposit be more solid step- working may be adopted, and should water be reached recourse may be had to long-handled slanes. The sods are allowed to drain, and then stacked for drying in the air, being occasionally turned so as to dry equally; this process may require about six weeks. The dried sods are known as " dug peat." Excavators and dredges are now extensively used, and the drying is effected in heated chambers, both fixed and revolving. The low value of ordinary dug peat as a fuel has led to processes for obtaining a more useful product. In M. Ekenberg's process the wet peat is pulped and milled so as to make it of uniform composition, and the pulp passed into an oven maintained at l8o°-2OO° F., where it is carbonized by superheated water. The pressed product, which resembles lignite, still contains 8 to 14% of water; this is driven off by heat, and the residue briquetted. The final product is nearly equal to coal in calorific value, and has the additional advantage of a lower sulphur content — 0-2 to 0-4 % against about 2 % in ordinary coal. M. Zeigler's method leads to the production of a useful coke. Both these processes permit the recovery of valuable by-products, especially ammonium sulphate. Experiments for obtaining a gas suitable for consumption in gas- engines have been followed by commercial processes devised by the Mond Gas Corporation, London, and Crossley Bros, of Manchester, and by Caro and Frank in Germany. The processes essentially consist in destructively distilling peat in special retorts and under specified conditions, and, in addition to the gas, there is recovered a useful coke and also the nitrogen as ammonium sulphate. The conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia has been the subject of much work, and is commercially pursued at a works at Carn- lough, Co. Antrim, under patents held by H. C. Woltereck. The peat is treated with a mixture of air and water vapour in special furnaces, and the gaseous products, including paraffin tar, acetic acid and ammonia, are led through a special scrubber to remove the tar, then through a tower containing milk of lime to absorb the acid (the calcium acetate formed being employed for the manu- facture of acetone, &c.), and finally through a sulphuric acid tower, where the ammonia is converted into ammonium sulphate which is recovered by crystallization. Peat has also been exploited as a source of commercial alcohol, to be employed in motors. In the process founded on the experi- ments of R. W. Wallace and Sir W. Ramsay, which gives 25 to 26 gallons of spirit from a ton of peat, the peat is boiled with water containing a little sulphuric acid, the product neutralized with lime and then distilled; the ammonia is also recovered. In another process a yield of 40 gallons of spirit and 66 Ib of ammonium sulphate per ton of peat is claimed. Of other applications we may notice C. E. Nelson's process for making a paper, said to be better than ordinary wrapping; the first factory to exploit this idea was opened at Capac, Michigan, in 1906. Peat has been employed as a manure for many years, and recently attempts have been made to convert artificially its nitrogen into assimilable nitrates; such a process was patented by A. Miintz and A. G. Girard of Paris, in 1907. See P. R. Bjorling and F. T. Gissing, Peat and its Manufacture (1907); F. T. Gissing, Commercial Peat (1909); E. Nystrom, Peat and Lignite (1908), published by Department of Mines of Canada. PECAUT, FELIX (1828-1898), French educationalist, a member of an old Huguenot family, was born at Salies de Beam, in 1828. He was for some months evangelical pastor at Salies, but he had no pretence of sympathy with ecclesiastical authority PECCARY— PECK He was consequently compelled to resign his pastorate, and for some years occupied himself by urging the claims of a liberal Christianity. In 1879 he conducted a general inspection of primary education for the French government, and several similar missions followed. His fame chiefly rests in his successful organization of the training school for women teachers at Fontenoy-aux-Roses, to which he devoted fifteen years of ceaseless toil. He died on the 3ist of July 1898. A summary of his educational views is given in his Public Educa- tion and National Life (1897). PECCARY, the name of the New World representatives of the swine (Suidae) of the E. hemisphere, of which they constitute the sub-family Dicotylinae (or Tagassuinae). (See ARTIODACTYLA and SWINE.) The teeth of the peccaries differ from those of the typical Old World pigs (Sus), numerically, in wanting the upper outer incisor and the anterior premolar on each side of each jaw, the dental formula being: i. f , c. {, p. f , m. •§ , total 38. From those of all Old World swine or Suinae, the upper canines, or tusks, differ in having their points directed downwards, not outwards or The Collared Peccary (Dicotyles tajacu). upwards; these being very sharp, with cutting hinder edges, and completely covered with enamel until worn. The lower canines are large and directed upwards and outwards, and slightly curved backwards. The cheek-teeth form a continuous series, gradually increasing in size from the first to the last: the molars having square four-cusped crowns. The stomach is much more complex than in the true pigs, almost approaching that of a ruminant. In the feet the two middle (third and fourth) metacarpal and metatarsal bones, which are completely separate in the pigs, are united at their upper ends. On the fore-foot the two (second and fifth) outer toes are equally developed as in pigs, but on the hind-foot, although the inner (or second) is present, the outer or fifth toe is entirely wanting. As in all Suidae the snout is truncated, and the nostrils are situated in its flat, expanded, disk-like termination. The ears are rather small, ovate and erect; and there is no external appearance of a tail. Peccaries, which range fromNewMexico andTexas to Patagonia, are represented by two main types, of which the first is the collared peccary, Dicotyles (or Tagassu) tajacu, which has an extensive range in South America. Generally it is found singly or in pairs, or at most in small herds of from eight to ten, and is not inclined to attack other animals or human beings. Its colour is dark grey, with a white or whitish band passing across the chest from shoulder to shoulder. The length of the head and body is about 36 in. The second form is typified by the white-lipped peccary or warri, D. (or T.) labiatus, or pecari, representing the sub-genus Olidosus. Typically it is rather larger than the collared species, being about 40 in. in length, of a blackish colour, with the lips and lower jaw white. It is not found farther north than Guatemala, or south of Paraguay. Generally met with in large droves of from fifty to a hundred, it is of a more pugnacious disposition than the former species, and a hunter who encounters a herd in a forest has often to climb a tree as his only chance of safety. Peccaries are omnivorous, living on roots, fallen fruits, worms and carrion, and often inflict great devastation upon crops. Both types are so nearly allied that they will breed together freely in captivity. Unlike pigs, they never appear to produce more than two young ones at a birth. Remains of extinct peccaries referable to the modern genus occur in the caverns and superficial deposits of South America, but not in the earlier, formations. This, coupled with the occurrence of earlier types in North America, indicates that the group is a northern one. Of the extinct North American peccaries, the typical Dicotyles occur in the Pliocene while the Miocene Botkriolabis, which has tusks of the peccary type, approximates in the structure of its cheek-teeth to the European Miocene genus among the Suinae. From this it may be inferred that the ancestral peccaries entered America in the Upper Oligocene. Platygonus is an aberrant type which died out in the Pleistocene. (R.L.*) PECHLIN, KARL FREDRIK (1720-1796), Swedish politician and demagogue, son of the Holstein minister at Stockholm, was educated in Sweden, and entered the Swedish army. He rose to the rank of major-general, but became famous by being the type par excellence of the corrupt and egoistic Swedish parlia- mentarian of the final period of the Frihetstiden (see SWEDEN : History); he received for many years the sobriquet of " General of the Riksdag." Pechlin first appears prominently in Swedish politics in 1760, when by suddenly changing sides he contrived to save the " Hats " from impeachment. Enraged at being thus excluded from power by their former friend, the " Caps " procured Pechlin's expulsion from the two following Riksdags - In 1769 Pechlin sold the " Hats " as he had formerly sold the " Caps, " and was largely instrumental in preventing the pro- jected indispensable reform of the Swedish constitution. During the revolution of 1772 he escaped from Stockholm and kept quietly in the background. In 1786, when the opposition against Gustavus III. was gathering strength, Pechlin reappeared in the Riksdag as one of the leaders of the malcontents, and is said to have been at the same time in the pay of the Russian court. In 1789 he was one of the deputies whom Gustavus III. kept under lock and key till he had changed the government into a semi-absolute monarchy. It is fairly certain that Pechlin was at the bottom of the plot for murdering Gustavus in 1792. On the eve of the assassination (March 16) the principal conspirators met at his house to make their final preparations and discuss the form of government which should be adopted after the king's death. Pechlin undertook to crowd the fatal masquerade with accomplices, but took care not to be there personally. He was arrested on the i7th of March, but nothing definite could ever be proved against him. Nevertheless he was condemned to imprisonment in the fortress of Varberg, where he died four years later. See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London, 1905). (R. N. B.) PECHORA, a river of N. Russia, rising in the Urals, almost on 62° N., in the government of Perm. It flows W. for a short distance, then turns N. and maintains that direction up to about 66° 20' N. It then describes a double loop, to N. and to S., and after that resumes its N. course, finally emptying into the Gulf of Pechora, situated between the White Sea and the Kara Sea. Its total length is 970 m. At its mouth it forms an elongated delta. Although frozen in its upper reaches for 190 days in the year and for 138 days in its lower reaches, it is navigable throughout the greater part of its course. Its drainage basin covers an area of 127,200 sq. m. The principal tributaries are, on the right, the Ilych and the Usa, and on the .eft the Izhma, the Tsylma and the Sula. PECK, a dry measure of capacity, especially used for grain. It contains 8 quarts or 2 gallons, and is J of a bushel. The PECKHAM— PECORA 33 imperial peck contains 554-548 cub. in., in the United States of America 537-6 cub. in. The word is in M.E. pek, and is found latinized as pecctim or pekka. In Med. Lat. are found picotinus, " mensura frumentaria," and picotus, " mensura liquidorum " (Du Cange, Gloss, s.vv.) These words seem to be connected with the Fr. picoter, to peck, of a bird, and this would identify the word with " peck," a variant of " pick," a tap or stroke of the beak, especially used of the action of a bird in picking up grain or other food. The sense-development in this case is very obscure, and the name of the measure is found much earlier than " peck " as a variant form of " pick." PECKHAM, JOHN (d. 1292), archbishop of Canterbury, was probably a native of Sussex, and received his early education from the Cluniac monks of Lewes. About 1250 he joined the Franciscan order and studied in their Oxford convent. Shortly afterwards he proceeded to the university of Paris, where he took his degree under St Bonaventure and became regent in theology. For many years Peckham taught at Paris, coming into contact with the greatest scholars of the day, among others St Thomas Aquinas. About 1270 he returned to Oxford and taught there, being elected in 1275 provincial minister of the Franciscans in England, but he was soon afterwards called to Rome as lector sacri palalii, or theological lecturer in the schools of the papal palace. In 1279 he returned to England as archbishop of Canterbury, being appointed by the pope on the rejection of Robert Burnell, Edward I.'s candidate. Peckham was always a strenuous advocate of the papal power, especially as shown in the council of Lyons in 1274. His enthronement in October 1279 marks the beginning of an important epoch in the history of the English primacy. Its characteristic note was an insistence on discipline which offended contemporaries. Peckham's zeal was not tempered by discernment, and he had little gift of sympathy or imagination. His first act on arrival in England was to call a council at Reading, which met in July 1 279. Its main object was ecclesiastical reform, but the pro- vision that a copy of Magna Carta should be hung in all cathedral and collegiate churches seemed to the king a political action, and parliament declared void any action of this council touching on the royal power. Nevertheless Peckham's relations with the king were often cordial, and Edward called on him for help in bringing order into conquered Wales. The chief note of his activity was, however, certainly ecclesiastical. The crime of " plurality," the holding by one cleric of two or more benefices, was especially attacked, as also clerical absenteeism and ignorance, and laxity in the monastic life. Peckham's main instrument was a minute system of " visitation," which he used with a frequency hitherto unknown. Disputes resulted, and on some points Peckham gave way, but his powers as papal legate complicated matters, and he did much to strengthen the court of Canterbury at the expense of the lower courts. The famous quarrel with St Thomas of Cantilupe, bishop of Hereford, arose out of similar causes. A more attractive side of Peckham's career is his activity as a writer. The numerous manuscripts of his works to be found in the libraries of Italy, England and France, testify to his industry as a philosopher and commentator. In philosophy he represents the Franciscan school which attacked the teaching of St Thomas Aquinas on the " Unity of Form." He wrote in a quaint and elaborate style on scientific, scriptural and moral subjects and engaged in much controversy in defence of the Franciscan rule and practice. He was " an excellent maker of songs," and his hymns are characterized by a lyrical tenderness which seems typically Franciscan. Printed examples of his work as com- mentator and hymn writer respectively may be found in the Firamentum Irium ordinum (Paris, 1512), and his office for Trinity Sunday in the " unreformed " breviary. The chief authority on Peckham as archbishop of Canterbury, is the Registrum fratris Johannis Peckham, edited by C. Trice Martin for the Rolls Series (London, 1882-1885). A sympathetic account of his life as a Franciscan is to be found in L. Wadding, Annales minorum (Lyons, 1625, 1654). See also the article by C. L. Kingsford in Did. Nat. Biog., and Wilkin's Concilia magnae Britanniae (London, 1737). (E. O'N.) XXI. 2 PECOCK (or PEACOCK), REGINALD (c. i39S-c. 1460), English prelate and writer, was probably born in Wales, and was edu- cated at Oriel College, Oxford. Having been ordained priest in 1421, he secured a mastership in London in 1431, and soon became prominent by his attacks upon the religious position of the Lollards. In 1444 he became bishop of St Asaph, and six years later bishop of Chichester. He was an adherent of the house of Lancaster and in 1454 became a member of the privy council. In attacking the Lollards Pecock put forward religious views far in advance of his age. He asserted that the Scriptures were not the only standard of right and wrong; he questioned some of the articles of the creed and the infallibility of the Church; he wished " bi cleer witte drawe men into consente of trewe feith otherwise than bi fire and swerd or hangement " and in general he exalted the authority of reason. Owing to these views the archbishop of Canterbury ,Thomas Bourchier, ordered his writings to be examined. This was done and he was found guilty of heresy. He was removed from the privy council and he only saved himself from a painful death by privately, and then publicly (at St Paul's Cross, Dec. 4, 1457), renounc- ing his opinions. Pecock, who has been called " the only great English theologian of the isth century," was then forced to resign his bishopric, and was removed to Thorney Abbey in Cambridgeshire, where he doubtless remained until his death. The bishop's chief work is the famous Represser of over-much weeting [blaming] of the Clergie, which was issued about 1455. In addition to its great importance in the history of the Lollard movement the Represser has an exceptional interest as a model of the English of the time, Pecock being one of the first writers to use the vernacular. In thought and style alike it is the work of a man of learning and ability. A biography of the author is added to the edition of the Represser published by C. Babingtor. for the Rolls Series in 1860. Pecock' s other writings include the Book or Rule of Christian Religion; the Donet, " an introduction to the chief truths of the Christian faith in the form of a dialogue between father and son " ; and the Folewer to the Donet. The two last works are extant in manuscript. His Book of Faith has been edited from the manuscript in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, by J. L. Morison (Glasgow, 1909). See also John Lewis, Life of Pecock (1744; new ed., 1820). PECORA (plural of Lat. pecus, cattle), a term employed — in a more restricted sense — in place of the older title Ruminantia, to designate the group of ruminating artiodactyle ungulates represented by oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, deer, giraffes, &c. The leading characteristics of the Pecora are given in some detail in the article ARTIODACTYLA (q.v.); but it is necessary to allude to a few of these here. Pecora, or true ruminants as they may be conveniently called, have complex stomachs and chew the cud; they have no upper incisor teeth; and the lower canines are approximated to the outer incisors in such a manner that the three incisors and the one canine of the two sides collectively form a continuous semicircle of four pairs of nearly similar teeth. In the cheek-teeth the component columns are crescent-shaped, constituting the selenodont type. In the fore- limbs the bones corresponding to the third and fourth metacar- pals of the pig's foot are fused into a cannon-bone; and a similar condition obtains in the case of the corresponding metatarsals in the hind-limbs. There is generally no sagittal crest to the skull; and the condyle of the lower jaw is transversely elongated. Another general, although not universal, characteristic of the Pecora is the presence of simple or complex appendages on the forehead commonly known as horns. In a few existing species, such as the musk-deer and the water-deer, these appendages are absent, and they are likewise lacking in a large number of extinct members of the group, in fact in all the earlier ones. They are, therefore, a specialized feature, which has only recently attained its full development. These horns present several distinct structural types, which may be classified as follows : — I. The simplest type is that of the giraffe, in which three bony prominences — a single one in front and a pair behind — quite separate from the underlying bones and covered during life with skin, occupy the front surface of the skull. The summits of the hind pair are surmounted by bristly hairs. In the extinct 5 34 PECORA Sivatherium there are two pairs of such appendages, of which the hinder are large and were probably covered during life either with skin or thin horn. In the giraffes the separation of the horns from the skull may be a degenerate character. II. In the Asiatic muntjac deer we find a pair of skin-covered horns, or "pedicles," corresponding to the paired horns of the giraffe, although welded to the skull. From the summits of these FIG. i. — Head of Siamese Deer (Cervus schomburgkii), showing antlers. pedicles arise secondary outgrowths, at first covered with skin, which (owing to the growth of a ring of bone at the base arresting the flow of blood) eventually dries up and leaves bare bone incapable of further growth. In the muntjac the bare bony part, or " antler," is small in proportion to the skin-covered pedicle, and simple in structure; but in the majority of deer the antler increases in size at the expense of the pedicle — which dwindles — and in some species, like the Siamese deer (fig. i), the sambar and the red deer, becomes very large and more or less branched. Owing to liability to necrosis, the permanent retention of such a mass of dead bone would be dangerous; and the antlers are consequently shed annually (or every few years), to be renewed the following year, when, till the animal becomes past its prime, they are larger than their predeces- sors. The periodical shedding is also necessary in order to allow of this increase in size. With the exception of the reindeer, antlers are confined to the males. III. The third type of horn is presented by the American prongbuck, or pronghorn, in which bony processes, or " core's," corre- sponding to the horns of the giraffe, have acquired a horny sheath, in place of skin ; the sheath being in this instance forked, and annually shed and renewed, although the core is simple. The sheaths are akin to hair in structure, thus suggesting affinity with the hairs surmounting the giraffe's horns. Female prongbuck may or may not have horns. IV. In the great majority of " Hollow-horned Ruminants," such as oxen, sheep, goats and antelopes (fig. 2), the horny sheath (or true " horn ") forms a simple unbranched cone, which may be compressed, spirally twisted, or curved in one or more directions, but is permanently retained and continues to grow throughout life from the base, while it becomes worn away at the tip. Rarely, as in the four-horned antelope, there are two pairs of horns. In many cases these horns are present in both sexes. Dr H. Gadow is of opinion that the antlers of the deer, the horn- like protuberances on the skull of the giraffe, and the true horns of the prongbuck and other hollow-horned ruminants (Bovidae) are all different stages of evolution from a single common type: the antlers of the deer being the most primitive, and the horns of the Bovidae the most specialized. From the fact that the bony horn-core of the hollow-horned ruminants first develops as a separate ossification, as do the horns of the giraffe, while the pedicle of the antlers of the deer grow direct from the frontal bone, it has been proposed to place the hollow-horned ruminants (inclusive of the prongbuck) and the giraffes in one group and the deer in another. This arrangement has the disadvantage of separating the deer from the giraffes, to which they are evidently nearly related ; but_ Dr Gadow's work brings them more into line. Whether he is right in regarding the hollow-horned ruminants as derived from the primitive deer may, however, be a matter of opinion. One very important fact recorded by Dr Gadow is that calves and lambs shed their horns at an early age. The Bovidae are thus brought into nearer relationship with the American prongbuck (the only living ruminant which sheds its horn-cover in the adult condition) than has generally been supposed. The above-mentioned four types of skull appendages are gener- ally regarded as severally characteristic of as many family groups, namely the Giraffidae, Cervidae, Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The two last are, however, much more closely connected than are either of the others, and should perhaps be united. Giraffidae. — In the Giraffidae, which include not only giraffes (Giraffa) but also the okapi (Ocapia) and a number of extinct species from the Lower Pliocene Tertiary deposits of southern Europe, Asia and North Africa, the appendages on the skull are of type No. I., and may well be designated " antler-horns." Another important feature is that the lower canine has a cleft or twp-lobed crown, so that it is unlike the incisors to which it is approximated. There are no upper canines; and the cheek-teeth are short -crowned (brachyodont) with a peculiar grained enamel, resembling the skin of a slug in character. The feet have only two hoofs, all traces of the small lateral pair found in many other ruminants having disappeared. The giraffes (Giraffa) are now an exclusively African genus, and have long legs and neck, and three horns — a single one in front and a pair behind — supplemented in some instances with a rudi- mentary pair on the occiput. The okapi (Ocapia), which is also African but restricted to the tropical forest-region, in place of being an inhabitant of more or less open country, represents a second genus, characterized by the shorter neck and limbs, the totally different type of colouring, and the restriction of the horns to the male sex, in which they form a pair on the forehead; these horns being more compressed than FIG. 2. — Head of Grant's Gazelle (Gazella granti), showing horns. the paired horns of the giraffe, and penetrating the skin at their summits (see GIRAFFE and OKAPI). Remains of extinct species of giraffe occur in the Lower Pliocene formations of Greece, Hungary, Persia, Northern India and China. From deposits of the same age in Greece, Samos and elsewhere have been obtained skulls and other remains of Palaeolragus or Samotherium, a ruminant closely allied to Ocapia, the males of which were armed with a very similar pair of dagger-shaped horns. Helladotherium was a much larger animal, known by a single hornless skull from the Pliocene of Greece, which may be that of a female. In the equally large PECORA 35 Bramatherium and Hydaspitherium of India the horns of the males were complex, those of the former including an occipital pair, while those of the latter arise from a common base. In both genera, as in the okapi, there is a vacuity in front of the orbit. Largest of all is Sivatherium, typically from the Lower Pliocene of Northern India, but also recorded from Adrianople, in which the skull of the male is short and wide, with a pair of simple conical horns above the eye, and a huge branching pair at the vertex. Libytherium is an allied form from North Africa. Whether the Giraffidae were originally an African or a Euro-Asiatic group there is not yet sufficient evidence to decide. The family is unrepre- sented in the western hemisphere. Cervidae. — In the deer-tribe, or Cervidae, the lower canine, as in the two following families, is simple and similar to the incisors. The frontal appendages, when present, are confined (except in the case of the reindeer) to the males, and take the form of antlers, that is to say of type No. II. in the foregoing description. As a general rule, the molars, and more especially the first, are partially brachy- odont (short-crowned) ; although they are taller in the chital (Cervus axis). In the skull there are two orifices to the lachrymal duct, situated on or inside the rim of the orbit. A preorbital vacuity of such dimensions as to exclude the lachrymal bone from articulation with the nasal. Upper canines usually present in both sexes, and sometimes attaining a very great size in the male (see fig. 3). FIG. 3. — Skull of Chinese Water-Deer, Hydrelaphus inermis (adult male), a Deer without Antlers, but with largely developed upper canine teeth. (Xj.) Lateral digits of both fore and hind feet almost always present, and frequently the lower ends of the metacarpals and the meta- tarsals as well. Placenta with few cotyledons. Gall-bladder absent (except in the musk-deer, Moschus). This family contains numerous species, having a wide geographical distribution, ranging in the New World from the Arctic circle as far south as Patagonia, and in the Old World throughout the whole of Europe and Asia, but absent in Africa south of the Sahara, and, of course, Australasia. Evidently the family originated in the northern continent of the Old World, from which an entrance was effected by way of Bering Strait into America. Some of the more northern American deer, such as the wapiti, reindeer and elk (moose), are cjosely allied to Old World species; but there is also a group of exclusively American deer (Mazama) — the only one found in Central and South America — the members of which are unlike any living Old World deer; and these must be regarded as having reached the western hemi- sphere at an earlier date than the wapiti, reindeer and elk (see DEER, ELK, FALLOW-DEER, MUNTJAC, MUSK-DEER, PfeRE DAVID'S DEER, REINDEER, ROEBUCK, WATER-DEER, &c.). Remains of deer more or less nearly allied to species inhabiting the same districts are found over the greater part of the present habitat of the family. It is noteworthy, however, that certain Pliocene European deer (Anoglochis) appear to be closely allied to the modern American deer (Mazama). As we descend in the geo- logical series the deer have simpler antlers, as in the European Miocene Dicrocerus; while in the Oligocene Amphitragulus, Dremo- therium and Palaeomeryx, constituting the family Palaeomerycidae, antlers were absent, and the crowns of the molars so low that the whole depth of the hollows between the crescentic cojumns is com- pletely visible. Most of these animals were of small size, and many had long upper canines, like those of the existing Hydrelaphus; while in all there was no depression for a gland in front of the eye. From North America have been obtained remains of certain ruminants which seem in some degree intermediate between deer and the prongbuck. Of one of these a complete skeleton was obtained in 1901 from the Middle Miocene deposits of north-eastern Colorado, and as mounted stands 19 in. in height at the withers. With the exception that the right antler is malformed and partially aborted, and that the bones of the lateral toes have been lost, the skeleton is practically complete. The one complete antler has a well-marked burr and a long undivided beam, which eventually forks. After this there is a bifurcation of the hinder branch, thus producing three tines. From the presence of these well-marked antlers the skeleton would at first sight be set down as that of a small and primitive deer, conforming in regard to the structure of these appendages to the American type of the group. Mr W. D. Matthew shows, however, that the skeleton of Merycodus, as the extinct ruminant is called, differs markedly from that of all deer. The most noteworthy point of distinction is in the skull, in which the facial portion is sharply bent down on the posterior basal axis in the fashion characteristic of the hollow-horned ruminants (oxen, antelopes, &c.), and the American prongbuck, instead of running more or less nearly parallel to the same, as in deer. Again, the cheek-teeth have the tall crowns characteristic of a large number of representatives of the first group and of the prongbuck, thereby showing that Merycodus can scarcely be regarded as a primitive type. As regards the general structure of the rest of the skeleton, it must suffice to say that this agrees closely with that of the ante- lopes and the prongbuck', and differs markedly from the cervine type. In the absence of any trace of the lower extremities of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the lateral toes the skeleton differs from the American deer, and resembles those hollow-horned ruminants in which these toes persist. As a whole Merycodus presents a curious mixture of cervine and antilopine character. To explain these, two alternatives are offered by the describer. Either we must regard Merycodus as a deer which parallels the antelopes and the prongbuck in every detail of skeletal structure, or else, like the prongbuck, an antelope separated from the main stock at a date sufficiently early to have permitted the development of a distinct type of cranial appendages, namely, antlers in place of true horns. The former alternative, it is urged, involves a parallelism too close and too uniform between unrelated types to have been probable. On the latter view Mery- codus, the prongbuck (Antilocapra) and the antelopes must be regarded as representing three branches from an original common stock, divergent as regards the structure of their cranial appendages, but parallel in other respects. If, therefore, Antilocapra deserves to be separated as a family from the Bovidae, the same can scarcely be refused for Merycodus. But American extinct types appear to indicate signs of intimate relationship between antelopes, prong- buck and deer, and it may be necessary eventually to amend the current classification. As a temporary measure it seems prefer- able to regard Merycodus either as representing a distinct sub- family of Antilocapridae or a family by itself, the latter course being adopted by Mr Matthew. Whatever be the ultimate verdict, the association of antlers — and these, be it noticed, conforming almost exactly with the forked type characteristic of American deer — with an antilopine type of skull, skeleton and teeth in Merycodus is a most interesting and unexpected feature. Merycodus was named many years ago by Professor J. Leidy on the evidence of imperfect materials, and other remains now known to belong to the same type were subsequently described as Cosoryx, to which Blastomeryx seems to be allied. Not till the discovery of the skeleton of the' species described by Mr Matthew was it possible to arrive at an adequate conception of the affinities of this remarkable ruminant. Antilocapridae. — By many modern writers the American prong- buck, pronghorn or " antelope," alone forming the genus Antilo- capra, is regarded as representing merely a sub-family of the Bovidae, to which latter group the animal is structurally akin. In view of what has been stated in the preceding paragraph with regard to the extinct American genus Merycodus, it seems, however, at least provisionally advisable to allow the prongbuck to remain as the type of a family — Antilocapridae. The characteristic of this family — as represented by the prongbuck — is that the sheath of the horns is forked, and shed annually, or every few years. The cheek- teeth are tall-crowned (hypsodont), and lateral hoofs are wanting (see PRONGBUCK). Bovidae. — Lastly, we have the great family of hollow-horned ruminants or Bovidae, in which the horns (present in the males at least of all the existing species) take the form of simple non-deciduous hollow sheaths growing upon bony cores. As a rule the molars are tall-crowned (hypsodont). Usually only one orifice to the lachrymal canal, situated inside the rim of the orbit. Lachrymal bone almost always articulating with the nasal. Canines absent in both sexes. The lateral toes may be completely absent, but more often are represented by the hoofs alone, supported sometimes by a very rudimentary skeleton, consisting of mere irregular nodules of bone. Lower ends of the lateral metacarpals and metatarsals never present. Gall-bladder almost always present. Placenta with many cotyledons. The Bovidae form a most extensive family, with members widely distributed throughout the Old World, with the exception of the Australian region; but in America they are less numerous, and confined to the Arctic and northern temperate regions, no species being indigenous either to South or Central America. The home of the family was evidently the Old World, whence a small number of forms made their way into North America by way of what is now Bering Strait. It has already been pointed out that the Cervidae originated in the northern continent of the Old World; and it has been suggested that the Bovidae were developed in Africa. Unfortunately, we know at present practically nothing as to the past history of the group, all the fossil species at present discovered approximating more or less closely to existing types. While admitting, therefore, that there are several facts in favour of the theory of an African origin of the Bovidae, final judgment PECS— PEDANT must for the present be suspended. For the various generic types see BOVIDAE, and the special articles referred to under that heading. (R. L.*) (Ger. FUnfkirchen), a town of Hungary, capital of the country of Baranya, 160 m. S.S.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 42, 252. It lies on the outskirts of the Mecsek Hills, and is composed of the inner old town, which is laid out in an almost regular square, and four suburbs. Pecs is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, and its cathedral, reputed one of the oldest churches in Hungary, is also ont of the finest medieval buildings in the country. It was built in the nth century in the Romanesque style with four towers, and completely restored in 1881-1891. In the Cathedral Square is situated the Sacellum, a subterranean brick structure, probably a burial-chapel, dating from the end of the 4th or the beginning of the sth century. Other noteworthy buildings are the parish church, formerly a mosque of the Turkish period; the hospital church, also a former mosque, with a minaret 88 ft. high, and another mosque, the bishop's palace, and the town and county hall. Pecs has manufactories of woollens, porcelain, leather and paper, and carries on a considerable trade in tobacco, gall-nuts and wine. The hills around the town are covered with vineyards, which produce one of the best wines in Hungary. In the vicinity are valuable coal-mines, which since 1858 are worked by the Danube Steamship Company. According to tradition Pecs existed in the time of the Romans under the name of Sompiana, and several remains of the Roman and early Christian period have been found here. In the Prankish-German period it was known under the name of Quinque ecclesiae; its bishopric was founded in 1009. King Ludwig I. founded here in 1367 a university, which existed until the battle of Mohacs. In 1543 it was taken by the Turks, who retained possession of it till 1686. PECTORAL, a word applied to various objects worn on the breast (Lat. pectus) ; thus it is the name of the ornamental plate of metal or embroidery formerly worn by bishops of the Roman Church during the celebration of mass, the breastplate of the Jewish high priest, and the metal plate placed on the breast of the embalmed dead in Egyptian tombs. The " pectoral cross," a small cross of precious metal, is worn by bishops and abbots of the Roman, and by bishops of the Anglican, communion. The term has also been used for the more general " poitrel " or " peitrel " (the French and Norman French forms respectively), the piece of armour which protected the breast of the war-horse of the middle ages. PECULIAR, a word now generally used in the sense of that which solely or exclusively belongs to,or is particularly character- istic of, an individual; hence strange, odd, queer. The Lat. peculiaris meant primarily " belonging to private property," and is formed from peculium, private property, particularly the property given by a paterfamilias to his children, or by a master to his slave, to enjoy as their own. As a term of ecclesias- tical law " peculiar " is applied to those ecclesiastical districts, parishes, chapels or churches, once numerous in England, which were outside the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese in which they were situated, and were subject to a jurisdiction " peculiar " to themselves. They were introduced originally, in many cases by papal authority, in order to limit the powers of the bishop in his diocese. There were royal peculiars, e^. the Chapel Royal St James's, or St George's Windsor, peculiars of the archbishop, over certain of which the Court of Peculiars exercised jurisdiction (see ARCHES, COURT OF), and peculiars of bishops and deans (see DEAN). The jurisdiction and privi- leges of the " peculiars " were abolished by statutory powers given to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Acts 1836 and 1850, by the Pluralities Act 1838, the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1847, and other statutes. PECULIAR PEOPLE, a small sect of Christian faith-healers founded in London in 1838 by John Banyard. They consider themselves bound by the literal interpretation of James v. 14, and in cases of sickness seek no medical aid but rely on oil, prayer and nursing. The community is in the main composed of simple working people, who, apart from their peculiarity, have a good reputation; but their avoidance of professional medical attendance has led to severe criticism at inquests on children who have died for want of it. PEDAGOGUE, a teacher or schoolmaster, a term usually now applied with a certain amount of contempt, implying pedantry, dogmatism or narrow-mindedness. The Gr. Traidayuyos (ircus, boy, ayuybs, leader, 8.ytu>, to lead), from which the English word is derived, was not strictly an instructor. He was a slave in an Athenian household who looked after the personal safety of the sons of the master of the house, kept them from bad company, and took them to and from school and the gymnasium. He probably sat with his charges in school. The boys were put in his charge at the age of six. The 7rai5a7&yy6s, being a slave, was necessarily a foreigner, usually a Thracian or Asiatic. The Romans adopted the paedagogus or pedagogus towards the end of the republic. He probably took some part in the instruction of the boys (see SCHOOLS). Under the empire, the pedagogus was specifically the instructor of the boy slaves, who were being trained and educated in the household of the emperor and of the rich nobles and other persons; these boys lived together in a paedagogium, and were known as pueri paedagogiani, a name which has possibly developed into " page " (?.».). PEDAL CLARINET, a contrabass instrument invented in 1891 by M. F. Besson to complete the quartet of clarinets, as the contrafagotto or double bassoon completes that of the oboe family; it is constructed on practically the same principles as the clarinet, and consists of a tube 10 ft. long, in which cylin- drical and conical bores are so ingeniously combined that the acoustic principles remain unchanged. The tube is doubled up twice upon itself; at the upper end the beak mouthpiece stands out like the head of a viper, while at the lower a metal tube, in the shape of a U with a wide gloxinea-shaped bell, is joined to the wooden tube. The beak mouthpiece is exactly like that of the ' other clarinets but of larger size, and it is furnished with a single or beating reed. There are 13 keys and 2 rings on the tube, and the fingering is the same as for the B flat clarinet except for the eight highest semitones. The compass of the pedal clarinet is as follows: — Notation — Real Sounds gj t — to — from from 8va bassa The instrument is in B flat two octaves below the B flat clarinet, and, like it, it is a transposing instrument, the music being written in a key a tone higher than that of the composition, and in order to avoid ledger lines a whole octave higher besides. The tone is rich and full except for the lowest notes, which are unavoidably a little rough in quality, but much more sonorous than the corresponding notes on the double bassoon. The upper register resembles the chalumeau register of the B flat clarinet, being reedy and sweet. The instrument is used as a fundamental bass for the wood wind at Kneller Hall, and it has also been used at Covent Garden to accompany the music of Fafner and Hunding in the Nibelungen Ring. Many attempts have been made since the beginning of the I9th century to construct contra clarinets, but all possessed inherent faults and have been discarded (see BATYPHONE). A contrabass clarinet in F, an octave below the basset horn, constructed by Albert of Brussels in 1890, was, we believe, considered successful, but it differed in design from the pedal clarinet. (K. S.) PEDANT, one who exaggerates the value of detailed erudition for its own sake; also a person who delights in a display of the exact niceties of learning, in an excessive obedience to theory without regard to practical uses. The word came into English in the latter part of the i6th century in the sense of schoolmaster, the original meaning of Ital. pedanle, from which it is derived. The word is usually taken to be an adaptation of Gr. iraidfvtiv, PEDEN— PEDIPALPI 37 to teach. Others connect with an O. Ital. pedare, to tramp about (Lat. pes, foot), of an usher tramping about with his pupils. PEDEN, ALEXANDER (c. 1626-1686), Scottish divine, one of the leading forces in the Covenant movement, was born at Auchincloich, Ayrshire, about 1626, and was educated at Glasgow University. He was ordained minister of New Luce in Galloway in 1660, but had to leave his parish under Middleton's Ejectment Act in 1663. For 23 years he wandered far and wide, bringing comfort and succour to his co-religionists, and often very narrowly escaping capture. He was indeed taken in June 1673 while holding a conventicle at Knockdow, and condemned by the privy council to 4 years and 3 months' imprisonment on the Bass Rock and a further 15 months in the Tolbooth at Edinburgh. In December 1678 he was, with sixty others, sentenced to banishment to the American plantations, but the party was liberated in London, and Peden made his way north again to divide the remaining years of his life between his own country and the north of Ireland. His last days were spent in a cave in the parish of Sorn, near his birthplace, and there he died in 1686, worn out by hardship and privation. See A. Smelhe, Men of the Covenant, ch. xxxiv. PEDERSEN, CHRISTIERN (c. 1480-1554), Danish writer, known as the " father of Danish literature, " was a canon of the cathedral of Lund, and in 1510 went to Paris, where he took his master's degree in 1515. In Paris he edited the proverbs of Peder Laale and (1514) the Historia danica of Saxo Grammaticus. He showed signs of the spirit of reform, asserting that the gospels should be translated into the vernacular so that the common people might understand. He worked at a continuation of the history of Saxo Grammaticus, and became secretary to Christian II., whom he followed into exile in 1525. In Holland he translated the New Testament (1529) and the Psalms (1531) from the Vulgate, and, becoming a convert to the reformed opinion, he issued several Lutheran tracts. After his return to Denmark in 1532 he set up a printing press at Malmo. He published a Danish version (Kronike om Holger Danske) of the French romance of Ogier the Dane, and another of the Charlemagne legends, which is probably derived immediately from the Norwegian Katiamagnus saga. His greatest work, the Danish version of the Holy Scriptures, which is known generally as " Christian III.'s Bible, " is an important landmark in Danish literature. It was founded on Luther's version, and was edited by Peder Palladius, bishop of Zealand, and others. See C. Pedersen's Danske Skrifter, edited by C. J. Brandt and B. T. Fenger (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1850-1856). PEDESTAL (Fr. picdestal, Ital. piedestallo, foot of a stall), a term generally applied to a support, square, octagonal or circular on plan, provided to carry a statue or a vase. Although in Syria, Asia Minor and Tunisia the Romans occasionally raised the columns of their temples or propylaea on square pedestals, in Rome itself they were employed only to give greater importance to isolated columns, such as those of Trajan and Antoninus, or as a podium to the columns employed decor- atively in the Roman triumphal arches. The architects of the Italian revival, however, conceived the idea that no order was complete without a pedestal, and as the orders were by them employed to divide up and decorate a building in several storeys, the cornice of the pedestal was carried through and formed the sills of their windows, or, in open arcades, round a court, the balustrade of the arcade. They also would seem to have considered that the height of the pedestal should correspond in its proportion with that of the column of pilaster it supported; thus in the church of St John Lateran, where the applied order is of considerable dimensions, the pedestal is 13 ft. high instead of the ordinary height of 3 to 5 ft. PEDICULOSIS, or PHTHIRIASIS, the medical term for the pathological symptoms in man due to the presence of lice (pediculi), either on the head (pediculus capitis), body (pediculus corporis, or vestimentorum) , or pubes (pediculus pubis). PEDIGREE, a genealogical tree, a tabular statement of descent (see GENEALOGY). The word first appears at the beginning of the isth century and takes an extraordinary variety of forms, e.g. pedicree, pe de gre, petiegrew, petygru, &c. It is generally accepted that these point to a corruption of Fr. pied de grue, foot of a crane, and that the probable reference is to the marks resembling the claw of a bird found in old genealogies showing the lines of descent. Such etymologies as Minshea's par degris, by degrees, or pfre degrts, descent by the father, are mere guesses. PEDIMENT (equivalents, Gr. derfe, Lat. fasligium, Fr. ponton), in classic architecture the triangular-shaped portion of the wali above the cornice which formed the termination of the roof behind it. The projecting mouldings of the cornice which surround it enclose the tympanum, which is sometimes decorated with sculpture. The pediment in classic architecture corre- sponds to the gable in Gothic architecture, where the roof is of loftier pitch. It was employed by the Greeks only as the front of the roof which covered the main building; the Romans, how- ever, adopted it as a decorative termination to a doorway, niche or window, and occasionally, in a row of windows or niches, alternated the triangular with a segmental pediment. It was reserved for the Italian architects of the decadence to break the pediment in the centre, thus destroying its original purpose. The earliest English form of the word is periment or peremint, probably a workman's corruption of " pyramid. " PEDIPALPI, Arachnida (q.v.) related to the spiders, and serving in a measure to bridge over the structural interval between the latter and the scorpions. The appendages of the second pair are large and prehensile, as in scorpions, but are armed with spines, to impale and hold prey. The appendages of the third pair, representing the first pair of walking legs in spiders and scorpions, are, on the contrary, long, attenuated and many- jointed at the end. Like the antennae of insects, they act as feelers. It is from this structural feature that the term " pedi- palpi " has been derived. In the tailless division of the Pedipalpi, SrnUl Jlncta Mexican tailed Pedipalp (Mastigoproetus giganteus). namely the Amblypygi of which Phrynus is a commonly cited type, these tactile appendages are exceedingly long and lash- like, whereas in the tailed division, the Uropygi, of which Thely- phonus is best known, the limb is much shorter andless modified. Thelyphonus and its allies, however, have a long tactile caudal flagellum, the homologue of the scorpion's sting; but its exact use is unknown. A third division, the Tartarides, a subordinate group of the Uropygi, contains minute Arachnida differing principally from the typical Uropygi in having the caudal process un jointed and short. Apart from the Tartarides, the Pedipalpi PEDOMETER— PEEBLESSHIRE are large or medium-sized Arachnida, nocturnal in habits and spending the day under stones, logs of wood or loosened bark. Some species of the Uropygi (Thelyphonidae) dig burrows; and in the east there is a family of Amblypygi, the Charontidae, of which many of the species live in the recesses of deep caves. Specimens of another species have been found under stones between tide marks in the Andaman Islands. The Pedipalpi feed upon insects, and Like spiders, are oviparous. The eggs after being laid are carried about by the mother, adhering in a glutinous mass to the underside of the abdomen. Pedipalpi date back to the Carboniferous Period, occurring in deposits of that age both in Europe and North America. More- over, the two main divisions of the order, which were as sharply differentiated then as they are now, have existed practically unchanged from that remote epoch. In spite of the untold ages they have been in existence, the Pedipalpi are more restricted in range than the scorpions. The Uropygi are found only in Central and South America and in south and eastern Asia, from India and south China to the Solo- mon Islands.' The absence of the entire order from Africa is an interesting fact. The distribution of the Amblypygi practically covers that of the Uropygi, but in addition they extend from India through Arabia into tropical and southern Africa. Both groups are unknown in Madagascar, in Australia, with the exception possibly of the extreme north, and in New Zealand. Very little can be said with certainty about the distribution of the Tartar- ides. They have been recorded from the Indian Region, West Africa and sub-tropical America. (R- 1. P-) PEDOMETER (Lat. pes, foot, and Gr. utrpov, measure), an apparatus in the form of a watch, which, carried on the person of a walker, counts the number of paces he makes, and thus indicates approximately the distance travelled. The ordinary form has a dial-plate marked for yards and miles. The regis- tration is effected by the fall of a heavy pendulum, caused by the percussion of each step. The pendulum is forced back to a horizontal position by a delicate spring, and with each stroke a fine-toothed ratchet-wheel connected with it is moved round a certain length. The ratchet communicates with a train of wheels which work the dial-hands. In using the apparatus a measured mile or other known distance is walked and the indication thereby made on the dial-plate observed. According as it is too great or too small, the stroke of the pendulum is shortened or lengthened by a screw. Obviously the pedometer is little better than an ingenious toy, depending even for rough measurements on the uniformity of pace maintained throughout the journey measured. PEDRO II. (1825-1891), emperor of Brazil, came to the throne in childhood, having been born on the 2nd of December 1825, and proclaimed emperor in April 1831, upon the abdication of his father. He was declared of full age in 1840. For a long period few thrones appeared more secure, and his prosperous and beneficent rule might have endured throughout his life but for his want of energy and inattention to the signs of the times. The rising generation had become honeycombed with republicanism, the prospects of the imperial succession were justly regarded as unsatisfactory, the higher classes had been estranged by the emancipation of the slaves, and all these causes of discontent found expression in a military revolt, which in November 1889 overthrew the seemingly solid edifice of the Brazilian Empire in a few hours. Dom Pedro retired to Europe, and died in Paris on the 5th of December 1891. The chief events of his reign had been the emancipation of the slaves, and the war with Paraguay in 1864-70. Dom Pedro was a model constitutional sovereign, and a munificent patron of science and letters. He travelled in the United States (1876), and thrice visited Europe (1871-1872, 1876-1877, 1886-1889). PEEBLES, a royal and police burgh and county town of Peeblesshire, Scotland, situated at the junction of Eddleston Water with the Tweed. Pop. (1901), 5266. It is 27 m. south of Edinburgh by the North British Railway (22 m. by road), and is also the terminus of a branch line of the Caledonian system from Carstairs in Lanarkshire. The burgh consists of the new town, the principal quarter, on the south of the Eddleston, and the old on the north; the Tweed is crossed by a handsome five- arched bridge. Peebles is a noted haunt of anglers, and the Royal Company of Archers shoot here periodically for the silver arrow given by the burgh. The chief public buildings are the town and county halls, the corn exchange, the hospital and Chambers Institution. The last was once the town house of the earls of March, but was presented to Peebles byWilliam Chambers, the publisher, in 1859. The site of the castle, which stood till the beginning of the i8th century, is now occupied by the parish church, built in 1887. Of St Andrew's Church, founded in 1195, nothing remains but the tower, restored by William Chambers, who was buried beside it in 1883. The church of the Holy Rood was erected by Alexander III. in 1261, to contain a supposed remnant of the true cross discovered here. The building remained till 1784, when it was nearly demolished to provide stones for a new parish church. Portions of the town walls still exist, and there are also vaulted cellars constructed in the i6th and i7th centuries as hiding-places against Border freebooters. The old cross, which had stood for several years in the quadrangle of Chambers Institution, was restored and erected in High Street in 1895. The industries consist of the manufactures of woollens and tweeds, and of meal and flour mills. The town is also an important agricultural centre. The name of Peebles is said to be derived from the pebylls, or tents, which the Gadeni pitched here in the days of the Romans. The place was early a favourite residence of the Scots kings when they came to hunt in Ettrick forest. It probably received its charter from Alexander III., was created a royal burgh in 1367 and was the scene of the poem of Peblis to the Play, ascribed to James I. In 1544 the town sustained heavy damage in the expedition led by the ist earl of Hertford, afterwards the protector Somerset, and in 1604 a large portion of it was destroyed by fire. Though James VI. extended its charter, Peebles lost its importance after the union of the Crowns. On the north bank of the Tweed, one mile west of Peebles, stands Neidpath Castle. The ancient peel tower dates probably from the 1 3th century. Its first owners were Tweeddale Frasers or Frisels, from whom it passed, by marriage, to the Hays of Yester in Had- dingtonshire, earls of Tweeddale. It was besieged and taken by Cromwell in 1650. The third earl of Tweeddale (1645-1713) sold it to the duke of Queensberry in 1686. The earl of Wemyss suc- ceeded to the Neidpath property in 1810. PEEBLESSHIRE, or TWEEDDALE, a southern inland county of Scotland, bounded N. and N.E. by Edinburghshire, E. and S.E. by Selkirkshire, S. by Dumfriesshire, and W. by Lanarkshire. Its area is 222,599 acres or 547-8 sq. m. The surface consists of a succession of hills, which are highest in the south, broken by the vale of the Tweed and the glens formed by its numerous tributaries. South of the Tweed the highest points are Broad Law and Cramalt Craig on the confines of Selkirkshire (each 2723 ft.), while north of the river are, in the west centre, Brough- ton Heights (1872), Trahenna Hill (1792), Penvalla (1764) and Ladyurd Hill (1724), and in the north-west the Pentland emin- ences of Mount Maw (1753), Byrehope Mount (1752) and King Seat (1521). The lowest point above sea-level is on the banks of the Tweed, where it passes into Selkirkshire (about 450 ft.). The principal river is the Tweed, and from the fact that for the first 36 m. of its course of 97 m. it flows through the south of the shire, the county derives its alternative name of Tweeddale. Its affluents on the right are the Stanhope, Drummelzier, Manor andQuair;on the left, the Biggar, Lyne, Eddlestone and Leithen. The North Esk, rising in Cairnmuir, forms the boundary line between Midlothian and Peeblesshire for about four miles, during which it presents some very charming pictures, especially at Habbie's Howe, where Allan Ramsay laid the scene of the Gentle Shepherd. For 4 m. of its course the South Medwin divides the south-western part of the parish of Linton from Lanarkshire. Portmore Loch, a small sheet of water 2 m. north- east of Eddlestone church, lies at a height of 1000 ft. above the sea, and is the only lake in the county. The shire is in favour with anglers, its streams being well stocked and unpolluted, and few restrictions being placed on the fishing. PEEKSKILL— PEEL, VISCOUNT 39 Geology. — The southern elevated portion of the county is occupied by Silurian rocks, mainly by shales and grits or greywackes of Llandovery age. Owing to the repeated folding and crumpling of the rocks in this region there are numerous elliptical exposures of Ordovician strata within the Silurian tract; but the principal area of Ordovician rocks lies north of a line running south-west from the Moorfoot Hills through Lyne and Stobo. Here these rocks form a belt some four to five miles in breadth ; they are com- posed of radiolarian cherts and mudstones with associated con- temporaneous volcanic rocks of Arenig age, and of shales, grits and limestones of Llandeilo and Caradoc age. The general direction of strike of all these formations is south-west-north-east, but the dips are sometimes misleading through occasional inversion of the strata. Patches of higher Silurian, with Wenlock and Ludlow fossils, are found in the north of the country in the Pentland Hills, and resting conformably upon the Silurian in the same district is the Lower Old Red Sandstone. The Old Red Sandstone here consists of a lower division, red and chocolate marls and sandstones ; a middle division, volcanic rocks, porphyrites, tuffs, &c., which are unconformable on the lower marls in this area; and an upper division, sandstones and conglomerates. The south-west extremity of the Edinburgh coalfield just enters this county over the north- west border where a slice of Carboniferous strata is found let down between Silurian and Old Red rocks by two important faults. Both Calciferous sandstone and Carboniferous limestone occur, with useful beds of coal, limestone, ironstone, fireclay and alum shale. An outlier of Carboniferous limestone, surrounded by Lower Old Red Sandstone, lies south of Linton. Much glacial boulder clay with gravel and sand rests upon the higher ground, while morainic deposits are found in the valleys. Climate and Industries. — The annual rainfall averages from 33 to 41 in.; the mean temperature for the year is 47-5° F., for January 38° F., and for July 59° F. The character of the soil varies considerably, peat, gravel and clay being all repre- sented. The low-lying lands consist generally of rich loam, composed of sand and clay. The farming is pastoral rather than arable. The average holding is about 200 acres of arable land, with pasturage for from 600 to 800 sheep. Roughly speaking, one-fifth of the total area is under cultivation. Oats are the chief grain and turnips the chief root crop. The hill pastures are better suited to sheep than to cattle, but both flocks and herds are comparatively large. Cheviots and half-breds are preferred for the grass lands, the heathery ranges being stocked with black- faced sheep. Crosses of Cheviots, black-faced and half-bred ewes with Leicestershire rams are common. The favourite breed of cattle is a cross between Ayrshires and shorthorns, the cows being Ayrshire. Many of the horses are Clydesdales bred in the county. Pig-keeping is on the decline. A few acres have been laid down as nurseries and market gardens, and about 10,000 acres are under wood, especially at Dalwick, where larch and horse-chestnut were first grown in Scotland. Apart from agriculture, the only industries are the woollen factories and flour mills at Peebles and Innerleithen. The North British railway crosses the county in the north from Leadburn to Dolphinton, and runs down the Eddlestone valley from Leadburn to Peebles and Thornielee, while in the south the Caledonian railway connects the county town with Biggar in Lanarkshire. Population and Administration. — In 1001 the population numbered 13,066 or 43 persons to the sq. m. In igoi one person spoke Gaelic only, 72 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Peebles (pop. 5266) and Innerleithen (2181). West Linton, on Lyne Water, is a holiday resort. The shire combines with Selkirkshire to return one member to parliament, the electors of Peebles town voting with the county. Peeblesshire forms a sheriff dom with the Lothians and a sheriff -substitute sits in the county town. There is a high school in Peebles, and one or more schools in the county usually earn grants for secondary education. History. — The country was originally occupied by the Gadeni, a British tribe, of whom there are many remains in the shape of camps and sepulchral mounds (in which stone coffins, axes and hammers have been found), while several place-names (such as Peebles, Dalwick and Stobo) also attest their presence. The standing stones near the confluence of the Lyne and Tweed are supposed to commemorate a Cymric chief. The natives were reduced by the Romans, who have left traces of their military rule in the fine camp at Lyne, locally known as Randal's Walls. The hill-side terraces at Romanno are conjectured, somewhat fancifully, to be remains of a Roman method of cultivation. On the retreat of the Romans the Gadeni came into their own again, and although they are said to have been defeated by King Arthur at Cademuir in 530, they held the district until the consolidation of the kingdom after Malcolm II. 's victory at Carham in 1018, before which the land, constantly harried by Danes, was nomi- nally included in the territory of Northumbria. This tract of Scotland is closely associated with the legend of Merlin. David I. made the district a deanery in the archdeaconry of Peebles, and it afterwards formed part of the diocese of Glasgow. Towards the middle of the i2th century it was placed under the jurisdiction of two sheriffs, one of whom was settled at Traquair and the other at Peebles. At Happrew, in the valley of the Lyne, the English defeated Wallace in 1304. The Scottish sovereigns had a lodge at Polmood, and often hunted in the uplands and the adjoining forests. English armies occasionally invaded the county, but more frequently the people were harried by Border raiders. Many castles and peels were erected in the valley of the Tweed from the Bield to Berwick. Several were renowned in their day, among them Oliver Castle (built by Sir Oliver Fraser in the reign of David I.), Drumeizier, Tinnis or Thane's Castle, and Neidpath. Three miles south of Romanno stand the ruins of Drochil Castle, designed for the Regent Morton, who was beheaded at Edinburgh in 1581, and the building was never completed. Memories of the Covenanters cluster around Tweedhopefoot, Tweedshaws, Corehead, Tweeds- muir, Talla Linns and other spots. In the churchyard of Tweedsmuir is the tombstone of John Hunter, the martyr, which was relettered by " Old Mortality." The " men of the moss hags " did little fighting in Peeblesshire, but Montrose first drew rein at Traquair House after he was defeated at Philip- haugh on the Yarrow in 1645. The plain of Sheriffmuir near Lyne is the place where the Tweeddale wapinschaws used to be held in the i7th century. The Jacobite risings left the county untouched, and since the beginning of the ipth century the shire has been more conspicuous in literature than in politics. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Pennecuick, Description of Tweeddale (1715); William Chambers, History of Peeblesshire (Edinburgh, 1864); Dr C. B. Gunn, Innerleithen and Traquair (Innerleithen, 1867); Sir George Reid, The River Tweed from its Source to the Sea (Text by Professor Veitch) (Edinburgh, 1884); Professor Veitch, History and Poetry of the Scottish Border (Edinburgh, 1893); Border Essays (Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country (Edin- burgh, 1902). PEEKSKILL, a village of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Hudson river, about 41 m. N. of New York City. Pop. (1910, census), 15,245. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River railway, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Hudson river. The village is the home of many New York business men. At Peekskill are the Peekskill military academy (1833, non- sectarian); St Mary's school, Mount St Gabriel (Protestant Episcopal), a school for girls established by the sisterhood of St Mary; the Field memorial library; St Joseph's home (Roman Catholic); the Peekskill hospital, and several sanatoria. Near the village is the state military camp, where the national guard of the state meets in annual encampment. Peekskill has many manufactures, and the factory products were valued in 1905 at $7,251,897, an increase of 306-7 % since 1900. The site was settled early in the i8th century, but the village itself dates from about 1 760, when it took its present name from the adjacent creek or " kill," on which a Dutch trader, Jans Peek, of New York City, had established a trading post. During the latter part of the War of Independence Peekskill was an important outpost of the Continental Army, and in the neighbourhood several small engagements were fought between American and British scouting parties. The village was incorporated in 1816. Peekskill was the country home of Henry Ward Beecher. PEEL, ARTHUR WELLESLEY PEEL, IST VISCOUNT (1829- ), English statesman, youngest son of the great Sir Robert Peel, was born on the 3rd of August 1829, and was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He unsuccessfully PEEL, SIR ROBERT contested Coventry in 1863; in 1865 he was elected in the liberal interest for Warwick, for which he sat until his elevation to the peerage. In December 1 868 he was appointed parliamentary secretary to the poor law board. This office he filled until 1871, when he became secretary to the board of trade, an appointment which he held for two years. In 1873-1874 he was patronage secretary to the treasury, and in 1880 he became under- secretary for the home department. On the retirement of Mr Brand (afterwards Viscount Hampden)in 1884, Peel was elected Speaker. He was thrice re-elected to the post, twice in 1886, and again in 1892.. Throughout his career as Speaker he exhibited conspicuous impartiality, combined with a perfect knowledge of the traditions, usages and forms of the house, soundness of judg- ment, and readiness of decision upon all occasions; and he will always rank as one of the greatest holders of this important office. On the 8th of April 1895 he announced that for reasons of health he was compelled to retire. The farewell ceremony was of a most impressive character, and warm tributes were paid from all parts of the house. He was created a viscount and granted a pension of £4000 for life. He was presented with the freedom of the City of London in July 1895. The public interest in the ex-Speaker's later life centred entirely in his some- what controversial connexion with the drink traffic. A royal commission was appointed in April 1896 to inquire into the operation and administration of the licensing laws, and Viscount Peel was appointed chairman. In July 1898 Lord Peel drew up a draft report for discussion, in five parts. Some differences of opinion arose in connexion with the report, and at a meeting of the commissioners on the i2th of April 1899, when part 5 of the draft report was to be considered, a proposal was made to substitute an alternative draft for Lord Peel's, and also a series of alternative drafts for the four sections already discussed. Lord Peel declined to put these proposals, and left the room. Sir Algernon West was elected to the chair, and ultimately two main reports were presented, one section agreeing with Lord Peel, and the other — including the majority of the commis- sioners— presenting a report which differed from his in several important respects. The Peel report recommended that a large reduction in the number of licensed houses should be immediately effected, and that no compensation should be paid from the public rates or taxes, the money for this purpose being raised by an annual licence-rental levied on the rateable value of the licensed premises; it at once became a valuable weapon in the hands of advanced reformers. Lord Peel married in 1862, and had four sons and two daughters (married to Mr J. Rochfort Maguire and to Mr C. S. Goldman). His eldest son, William Robert Wellesley Peel (b. 1866), married the daughter of Lord Ashton; he was Unionist M.P. for South Manchester from 1900 to 1905, and later for Taunton, and also acted as Municipal Reform leader on the London County Council. PEEL, SIR ROBERT, BART. (1788-1850), English statesman, was born on the sth of February 1788 at Chamber Hall, in the neighbourhood of Bury, Lancashire, or, less probably, at a cottage near the Hall. He was a scion of that new aristocracy of wealth which sprang from the rapid progress of mechanical discovery and manufactures in the latter part of the i8th century. His ancestors were Yorkshire yeomen in the district of Craven, whence they migrated to Blackburn in Lancashire. His grandfather, Robert Peel, first of Peeltcld, and afterwards of Brookside, near Blackburn, was a calico-printer, who, appre- ciating the discovery of his townsman Hargreaves, took to cotton-spinning with the spinning-jenny and grew a wealthy man. His father, Robert Peel (1750-1830), third son of the last-named, carried on the same business at Bury with still greater success, in partnership with his uncle, Mr Haworth, and Mr Yates, whose daughter, Ellen, he married. He made a princely fortune, became the owner of Drayton Manor and member of parlia- ment for the neighbouring borough of Tamworth, was a trusted and honoured, as well as ardent, supporter of Pitt, contributed munificently towards the support of that leader's war policy, and was rewarded with a baronetcy ( 1 800) . At Harrow, according to the accounts of his contemporaries, Peel was a steady industrious boy, the best scholar in the school, fonder of country walks with a friend than of school games, but reputed one of the best football players. At Christ Church, where he entered as a gentleman commoner, he was the first who, under the new examination statutes, took a first class both in classics and in mathematics. His examination for his B .A. degree in 1808 was an academical ovation in presence of a numerous audience, who came to hear the first man of the day. From his classical studies Robert Peel derived not only the classical, though somewhat pompous, character of his speeches and the Latin quotations with which they were of ten happily interspersed but something of his lofty ideal of political ambition. To his mathematical training, which was then not common among public men, he no doubt owed in part his method, his clearness, his great power of grasping steadily and working out difficult and complicated questions. His speeches show that, in addition to his academical knowledge, he was well versed in English literature, in history, and in the principles of law, in order to study which he entered at Lincoln's Inn. But while reading hard he did not neglect to develop his tall and vigorous frame, and, though he lost his life partly through his bad riding, he was always a good shot and an untiring walker after game. His Oxford education confirmed his atachment to the Church of England. His practical mind remained satisfied with the doctrines of his youth, and he never showed that he had studied the great religious controversies of his day. In 1 809, being then in his twenty-second year, he was brought into parliament for the close borough of Cashel, which he after- wards exchanged for Chippenham, and commenced his parlia- mentary career under the eye of his father, then member for Tamworth, who fondly saw in him the future leader of the Tory party. In that House of Commons sat Wilberforce, Windham, Tierney, Grattan, Perceval, Castlereagh, Plunkett, Romilly, Mackintosh, Burdett, Whitbread, Horner, Brougham, Parnell, Huskisson, and, above all, George Canning. Lord Palmerston entered the house two years earlier, and Lord John Russell three years later. Among these men young Peel had to rise. And he rose, not by splendid eloquence, by profound political philosophy or by great originality of thought, but by the closest attention to all his parliamentary duties, by a study of all the business of parliament, and by a style of speaking which owed its force not to high flights of oratory, but to knowledge of the subject in hand, clearness of exposition, close reasoning, and tact in dealing with a parliamentary audience. With the close of the struggle against revolutionary France, political progress in England was soon to resume the march which that struggle had arrested. Young Peel's lot, however, was cast, through his father, with the Tory party. In his maiden speech in 1810, seconding the address, he defended the Walcheren expedition, which he again vindicated soon afterwards against the report of Lord Porchester's committee. It is said that even then his father had discerned in him a tendency to think for himself, and told Lord Liverpool that to make sure of his support it would be well to place him early in harness. At all events he began official life in 1810 as Lord Liverpool's under-secretary for war and the colonies under the administration of Perceval. In 1812 he was transferred by Lord Liverpool to the more important but unhappy post of secretary for Ireland. There he was engaged till 1818 in maintaining English ascendancy over a country heaving with discontent, teeming with conspiracy, and ever ready to burst into rebellion. A middle course between Irish parties was impossible, and Peel plied the established engines of coercion and patronage with a vigorous hand. At the same time, it was his frequent duty to combat Grattan, Plunkett, Canning and the other movers and advocates of Roman Catholic emancipation in the House of Commons. He, however, always spoke on this question with a command of temper wonderful in hot youth, with the utmost courtesy towards his opponents, and with warm expressions of sympathy and even of admiration for the Irish people. He also, thus early, did his best to advocate and promote joint education in Ireland as a means of reconciling PEEL, SIR ROBERT sects and raising the character of the people. But his greatest service to Ireland as secretary was the institution of the regular Irish constabulary, nicknamed after him " Peelers," for the protection of life and property in a country where both were insecure. His moderation of tone did not save him from the violent abuse of O'Connell, whom he was ill advised enough to challenge — an affair which covered them both with ridicule. In 1817 he obtained the highest parliamentary distinction of the Tory party by being elected member for the university of Oxford — an honour for which he was chosen in preference to Canning on account of his hostility to Roman Catholic emancipation, Lord Eldon lending him his best support. In the following year he resigned the Irish secretaryship, of which he had long been very weary, and remained out of office till 1821. But he still supported the ministers, though in the affair of Queen Caroline he stood aloof, disapproving some steps taken by the government, and sensitive to popular opinion; and when Canning retired on account of this affair Peel declined Lord Liverpool's invitation to take the vacant place in the cabinet. During this break in his tenure of office he had some time for reflection, which there was enough in the aspect of the political world to move. But early office had done its work. It had given him excellent habits of business, great knowledge and a high position; but it had left him somewhat stiff and punctilious, too cold and reserved and over anxious for formal justifications when he might well have left his conduct to the judgment of men of honour and the heart of the people. At the same time he was no pedant in business; in corresponding on political subjects he loved to throw off official forms and com- municate his views with the freedom of private correspondence; and where his confidence was given, it was given without reserve. At this period he was made chairman of the bullion committee on the death of Horner. He was chosen for this important office by Huskisson, Ricardo and their fellow-economists, who saw in him a mind open to conviction, though he owed hereditary allegiance to Pitt's financial policy, and had actually voted with his Pittite father for a resolution of Lord Liverpool's government asserting that Bank of England notes were equivalent to legal coin. The choice proved judicious. Peel was converted to the currency doctrines of the economists, and proclaimed his con- version in a great speech on the 24th of May 1819, in which he moved and carried four resolutions embodying the recommen- dations of the bullion committee in favour of a return to cash payments. This laid the foundation of his financial reputation, and his co-operation with the economists tended to give a liberal turn to his commercial principles. In the course he took he somewhat diverged from his party, and particularly from his father, who remained faithful to Pitt's depreciated paper, and between whom and his schismatic son a solemn and touching passage occurred in the debate. The author of the Cash Pay- ments Act had often to defend his policy, and he did so with vigour. The act is sometimes said to have been hard on debtors, including the nation as debtor, because it required debts to be paid in cash which had been contracted in depreciated paper; and Peel, as heir to a great fundholder, was even charged with being biased by his personal interests. But it is answered that the Bank Restriction Acts, under which the depreciated paper had circulated, themselves contained a provision for a return to cash payments six months after peace. In 1820 Peel married Julia, daughter of General Sir John Floyd, who bore him five sons and two daughters. The writers who have most severely censured Sir Robert Peel as a public man have dwelt on the virtues and happiness of his private and domestic life. He was not only a most loving husband and father but a true and warm-hearted friend. In Whitehall Gardens or at Drayton Manor he gathered some of the most distinguished intellects of the day. He indulged in free and cheerful talk, and sought the conversation of men of science; he took delight in art, and was a great collector of pictures; he was fond of farming and agricultural improvements; he actively oromoted useful works and the advancement of knowledge; he loved making his friends, dependants, tenants and neighbours happy. And, cold as he was in public, few men could be more bright and genial in private than Sir Robert Peel. In 1821 Peel consented to strengthen the enfeebled ministry of Lord Liverpool by becoming home secretary; and in that capacity he had again to undertake the office of coercing the growing discontent in Ireland, of which he remained the real administrator, and had again to lead in the House of Commons the opposition to the rising cause of Roman Catholic emancipa- tion. In 1825, being defeated on the Roman Catholic question in the House of Commons, he wished to resign office, but Lord Liverpool pleaded that his resignation would break up the government. He found a congenial task in reforming and humanizing the criminal law, especially those parts of it which related to offences against property and offences punishable by death. The five acts in which Peel accomplished this great work, as well as the great speech of the gth of March 1826, in which he opened the subject to the house, will form one of the most solid and enduring monuments of his fame. Criminal law reform was the reform of Romilly and Mackintosh, from the hands of the latter of whom Peel received it. But the masterly bills in which it was embodied were the bills of Peel — not himself a creative genius, but, like the founder of his house, a profound appreciator of other men's creations, and unrivalled in the power of giving them practical and complete effect. In 1827 the Liverpool ministry was broken up by the fatal illness of its chief, and under the new premier, George Canning, Peel, like the duke of Wellington and other high Tory members of Lord Liverpool's cabinet, refused to serve. Canning and Peel were rivals; but we need not interpret as mere personal rivalry that which was certainly, in part at least, a real difference ol connexion and opinion. Canning took a Liberal line, and was supported by many of the Whigs; the seceders were Tories, and it is difficult to see how their position in Canning's cabinet could have been otherwise than a false one. Separation led to public coolness and occasional approaches to bitterness on both sides in debate. But there seems no ground for exaggerated complaints against Peel's conduct. Canning himself said to a friend that " Peel was the only man who had behaved decently towards him." Their private intercourse remained uninterrupted to the end; and Canning's son afterwards entered public life under the auspices of Peel. The charge of having urged Roman Catholic emancipation on Lord Liverpool in 1825, and opposed Canning for being a friend to it in 1827, made against Sir Robert Peel in the fierce corn-law debates of 1846, has been withdrawn by those who made it. In January 1828, after Canning's death, the duke of Welling- ton formed a Tory government, in which Peel was home secretary and leader of the House of Commons. This cabinet, Tory as it. was, did not include the impracticable Lord Eldon, and did include Huskisson and three more friends of Canning. Its policy was to endeavour to stave off the growing demand for organic change by administrative reform, and by lightening the burdens of the people. The civil list was retrenched with an unsparing hand, the public expenditure was reduced lower than it had been since the Revolutionary war, and the import of corn was permitted under a sliding scale of duties. Peel also intro- duced into London the improved system of police which he had previously established with so much success in Ireland. But the tide ran too strong to be thus headed. First the government were compelled, after a defeat in the House of Commons, to acquiesce in the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, Peel bringing over their High Church supporters, as far as he could. Immediately afterwards the question of Roman Catholic emanci- pation was brought to a crisis by the election of O'Connell for the county of Clare. In August Peel expressed to the duke of Wellington his conviction that the question must be settled. He wrote that out of office he would co-operate in the settlement but in his judgment it should be committed to other hands than his. To this the duke assented, but in January 1829, owing to the declared opinions of the king, of the House of Lords, and of the Church against a change of policy, Wellington came to the 42 conclusion that without Peel's aid in office there was no prospect of success. Under that pressure Peel consented to remain, and all the cabinet approved. The consent of the king, which could scarcely have been obtained except by the duke and Peel, was extorted, withdrawn (the ministers being out for a few hours), and again extorted; and on the 5th of March 1829 Peel proposed Roman Catholic emancipation in a speech of more than four hours. The apostate was overwhelmed with obloquy. Having been elected for the university of Oxford as a leading opponent of the Roman Catholics, he had thought it right to resign his seat on being converted to emancipation. His friends put him again in nomination, but he was defeated by Sir R. H. Inglis. He took refuge in the close borough of Westbury, whence he afterwards removed to Tamworth, for which he sat till his death. Catholic emancipation was forced on Peel by circumstances; but it was mainly owing to him that the measure was complete, and based upon equality of civil rights. This great concession, however, did not save the Tory government. The French Revolution of July 1830 gave fresh strength to the movement against them, though, schooled by the past, they promptly recognized King Louis Philippe. The parliamentary reform movement was joined by some of their offended Protestant supporters. The duke of Wellington committed them fatally against all reform, and the elections went against them on the demise of the Crown; they were beaten on Sir H. Parnell's motion for a committee on the civil list, and Wellington took the opportunity to resign rather than deal with reform. While in office, Peel succeeded to the baronetcy, Dray ton Manor and a great estate by the death of his father (May 3, 1830). The old man had lived to see his fondest hopes fulfilled in the greatness of his son; but he had also lived to see that a father must not expect to fix his son's opinions — above all, the opinions of such a son as Sir Robert Peel, and in such an age as that which followed the French Revolution. Sir Robert Peel's resistance to the Reform Bill won back for him the allegiance of his party. His opposition was resolute but it was temperate, and once only he betrayed the suppressed fire of his temper, in the historical debate of the 22nd of April 1831, when his speech was broken off by the arrival of the king to dissolve the parliament which had thrown out reform. He refused to join the duke of Wellington in the desperate enterprise of forming a Tory government at the height of the storm, when the Grey ministry had gone out on the refusal of the king to promise them an unlimited creation of peers. By this conduct he secured for his party the full benefit of the reaction which he no doubt knew was sure to ensue. The general election of 1832, after the passing of the Reform Bill, left him with barely 150 followers in the House of Commons; but this handful rapidly swelled under his management into the great Conservative party. He frankly accepted the Reform Act as irrevocable, taught his party to register instead of despairing, appealed to the intelligence of the middle classes, whose new-born power he appreciated, steadily supported the Whig ministers against the Radicals and O'Connell, and gained every moral advantage which the most dignified and constitutional tactics could afford. To this policy, and to the great parliamentary powers of its author, it was mainly due that, in the course of a few years, the Conservatives were as strong in the reformed parliament as the Tories had been in the unre- formed. It is vain to deny the praise of genius to such a leader, though the skill of a pilot who steered for many years over such waters may sometimes have resembled craft. But the duke of Wellington's emphatic eulogy on him was, "Of all the men I ever knew, he had the greatest regard for truth." The duke might have added that his own question, "How is the king's government to be carried on in a reformed parliament ? " was mainly solved by the temperate and constitutional policy of Sir Robert Peel, and by his personal influence on the debates and proceedings of the House of Commons during the years which followed the Reform Act. In 1834, on the dismissal of the Melbourne ministry, power came to Sir Robert Peel before he expected or desired it. He hurried from Rome at the call of the duke of Wellington, whose PEEL, SIR ROBERT sagacious modesty yielded him the first place, and became prime minister, holding the two offices of first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. He vainly sought to include in his cabinet two recent seceders from the Whigs, Lord Stanley and Sir James Graham. A dissolution gave him a great increase of strength in the house, but not enough. He was outvoted on the election of the speaker at the opening of the session of 1835, and, after struggling on for six weeks longer, resigned on the question of appropriating part of the revenues of the Church in Ireland to national education. His time had not yet come; but the capacity, energy and resource he displayed in this short tenure of office raised him immensely in the estimation of the house, his party and the country. Of the great budget of practical reforms which he brought forward, the plan for the commutation of tithes, the ecclesiastical commission, and the plan for settling the question of dissenters' marriages bore fruit. From 1835 to 1840 he pursued the same course of patient and far-sighted opposition. In 1837 the Conservative members of the House of Commons gave their leader a grand banquet at Merchant Taylors' Hall, where he proclaimed in a great speech the creed and objects of his party. In 1839, the Whigs having resigned on the Jamaica Bill, he was called on to form a govern- ment, and submitted names for a cabinet, but resigned the commission owing to the young queen's persistent refusal to part with any Whig ladies of her bedchamber (see VICTORIA, QUEEN). In 1840 he was hurried into a premature motion of want of con- fidence. But in the following year a similar motion was carried by a majority of one, and the Whigs ventured to appeal to the country. The result was a majority of ninety-one against them on a motion of want of confidence in the autumn of 1841, upon which they resigned, and Sir Robert Peel became first lord of the treasury, with a commanding majority in both Houses of Parliament. The crisis called for a master-hand. The finances were in disorder. For some years there had been a growing deficit, estimated for 1842 at more than two millions, and attempts to supply this by additions to assessed taxes and customs duties had failed. The great financier took till the spring of 1842 to mature his plans. He then boldly supplied the deficit by im- posing an income-tax on all incomes above £150 a year. He accompanied this tax with a reform of the tariff, by which pro- hibitory duties were removed and other duties abated on a vast number of articles of import, especially the raw materials of manu- factures and prime articles of food. The increased consumption, as the reformer expected, countervailed the reduction of duty. The income-tax was renewed and the reform of the tariff carried still farther on the same principle in 1845. The result was, in place of a deficit of upwards of two millions, a surplus of five millions in 1845, and the removal of seven millions and a half of taxes up to 1847, not on^Y without loss, but with gain to the ordinary revenue of the country. The prosperous state of the finances and of public affairs also permitted a reduction of the interest on a portion of the national debt, giving a yearly saving at once of £625,000, and ultimately of a million and a quarter to the public. In 1844 another great financial measure, the Bank Charter Act, was passed and, though severely controverted and thrice suspended at a desperate crisis, has ever since regulated the currency of the country. In Ireland O'ConnelPs agitation for the repeal of the Union had now assumed threatening pro- portions, and verged upon rebellion. The great agitator was prosecuted, with his chief adherents, for conspiracy and sedition; and, though the conviction was quashed for informality, repeal was quelled in its chief. At the same time a healing hand was extended to Ireland. The Charitable Bequests Act gave Roman Catholics a share in the administration of charities and legal power to endow their own religion. The allowance to Maynooth was largely increased, notwithstanding violent Protestant opposition. Three queen's colleges, for the higher education of all the youth of Ireland, without distinction of religion, were founded, notwithstanding violent opposition, both Protestant and Roman Catholic. The principle of toleration once accepted, was thoroughly carried out. The last remnants of the penal laws PEEL, SIR ROBERT 43 were swept from the statute-book, and justice was extended to the Roman Catholic Church in Canada and Malta. In the same spirit acts were passed for clearing from doubt Irish Presbyterian marriages, for settling the titles of a large number of dissenters' chapels in England, and removing the municipal disabilities of the Jews. The grant for national education was trebled, and an attempt was made, though in vain, to introduce effective education clauses into the factory bills. To the alienation of any part of the revenues of the Established Church Sir Robert Peel never would consent; but he had issued the ecclesiastical com- mission, and he now made better provision for a number of populous parishes by a redistribution of part of the revenues of the Church. The weakest part of the conduct of this great government, perhaps, was its failure to control the railway mania by promptly laying down the lines on a government plan. It passed an act in 1844 which gave the government a right of purchase, and it had prepared a palliative measure in 1846, but was compelled to sacrifice this, like all other secondary measures, to the repeal of the corn laws. It failed also, though not without an effort, to avert the great schism in the Church of Scotland. Abroad it was as prosperous as at home. It had found disaster and disgrace in Afghanistan. It speedily ended the war there, and in India the invading Sikhs were destroyed upon the Sutlej. The sore and dangerous questions with France, touching the right of search, the war in Morocco, and the Tahiti affair, and with the United States touching the Maine boundary and the Oregon territory, were settled by negotiation. Yet there were malcontents in Sir Robert Peel's party. The Young Englanders disliked him because he had hoisted the flag of Conservatism instead of Toryism on the morrow of the Reform Bill. The strong philanthropists and Tory Chartists disliked him because he was a strict economist and an upholder of the new poor law. But the fatal question was protection. That question was being fast brought to a crisis by public opinion and the Anti-Corn-Law League. Sir Robert Peel had been recognized in 1841 by Cobden as a Free Trader, and after experience in office he had become in principle more and more so. Since his accession to power he had lowered the duties of the sliding scale, and thereby caused the secession from the cabinet of the duke of Buckingham. He had alarmed the farmers by admitting foreign cattle and meat under his new tariff, and by admitting Canadian corn. He had done his best in his speeches to put the mainte- nance of the corn laws on low ground, and to wean the landed interest from their reliance on protection. The approach of the Irish famine in 1845 turned decisively the wavering balance. When at first Sir Robert proposed to his cabinet the revision of the corn laws, Lord Stanley and the duke of Buccleuch dis- sented, and Sir Robert resigned. But Lord John Russell failed to form a new government. Sir Robert again came into office; and now, with the consent of all the cabinet but Lord Stanley, who retired, he, in a great speech on the 27th of January 1846, brought the repeal of the corn laws before the House of Commons. In the long and fierce debate that ensued he was assailed, both by political and personal enemies, with the most virulent invective, which he bore with his wonted calmness, and to which he made no retorts. His measure was carried; but immediately afterwards the offended protectionists, led by Lord George Bentinck and Benjamin Disraeli, coalesced with the Whigs, and threw him out on the Irish Coercion Bill. He went home from his defeat, escorted by a great crowd, who uncovered as he passed, and he immediately resigned. So fell a Conservative government which would otherwise have probably ended only with the life of its chief. Though out of office he was not out of power. He had " lost a party, but won a nation." The Whig ministry which succeeded him leant much on his support, with which he never taxed them. He joined them in carrying forward free-trade principles by the repeal of the navigation laws. He helped them to promote the principle of religious liberty by the bill for the emancipation of the Jews. One important measure was his own. While in office he had probed, by the Devon commission of inquiry, the sores of Ireland connected with the ownership and occupation of land. In 1849, in a speech on the Irish Poor Laws, he first suggested, and in the next year he aided in establishing, a corn- mission to facilitate the sale of estates in a hopeless state of encumbrance. The Encumbered Estates Act made no attempt, like later legislation, to secure by law the uncertain customary rights of Irish tenants, but it transferred the land from ruined landlords to solvent owners capable of performing the duties of property towards the people. On the aSth of June 1850 Sir Robert Peel made a great speech on the Greek question against Lord Palmerston's foreign policy of interference. This speech was thought to show that if necessary he would return to office. It was his last. On the following day he was thrown from his horse on Constitution Hill, and mortally injured by the fall. Three days he lingered and on the fourth (July 2, 1850) he died. All the tributes which respect and gratitude could pay were paid to him by the sovereign, by parliament, by public men of all parties, by the country, by the press, and, above all, by the great towns and the masses of the people to whom he had given " bread unleavened with injustice." He would have been buried among the great men of England in Westminster Abbey, but his will desired that he might be laid in Drayton church. It also renounced a peerage for his family, as he had before declined the garter for himself when it was offered him by the queen through Lord Aberdeen. Those who judge Sir Robert Peel will remember that he was bred a Tory in days when party was a religion; that he entered parliament a youth, was in office at twenty-four and secretary for Ireland at twenty-five; that his public life extended over a long period rife with change; and that his own changes were all forward and with the advancing intellect of the time. They will enumerate the great practical improvements and the great acts of legislative justice of those days, and note how large a share Sir Robert Peel had, if not in originating, in giving thorough practical effect to all. They will reflect that as a parliamentary statesman he could not govern without a party, and that it is difficult to govern at once for a party and for the whole people. They will think of his ardent love of his country, of his abstinence from intrigue, violence and faction, of his boundless labour through a long life devoted to the public service. Whether he was a model of statesmanship may be doubted. Models of statesmanship are rare, if by a model of statesmanship is meant a great administrator and party leader, a great political philo- sopher and a great independent orator, all in one. But if the question is whether he was a ruler loved and trusted by the English people there is no arguing against the tears of a nation. Those who wish to know more of him will consult his own post- humous Memoirs (1856), edited by his literary executors Earl Stanhope and Viscount Cardwell; his private correspondence, edited by C. S. Parker (1891-1899) ; the four volumes of his speeches; a sketch of his life and character by Sir Lawrence Peel (1860); an historical sketch by Lord Dalling (1874); Guizot's Sir Robert Peel (1.857); Kunzel's Leben und Reden Sir Robert Peel's (1851); Disraeli's Life of Lord George Bentinck (1858); Morley's Life of Cobden; mono- graphs by F. C. Montague (1888), J. R. Thursfeld (1891), and the earl of Rosebery (1899); Peel and O'Connett, by Lord Eversley; the Life of Sir J. Graham (1907), by C. S. Parker; Lord Stanmore's Life of Lord Aberdeen (1893); and the general histories of the time. (C. S. P.) Four of Sir Robert's five sons attained distinction. The eldest, SIR ROBERT PEEL (1822-1895), who became the 3rd baronet on his father's death, was educated at Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford. He was in the diplomatic service from 1844 to 1850, when he succeeded his father as member of parlia- ment for Tamworth, and he was chief secretary to the lord- lieutenant of Ireland from 1861 to 1865. He represented Tam- worth until the general election of 1880; in 1884 he became member for Huntingdon and in 1885 for Blackburn, but after 1886 he ceased to sit in the. House of Commons. Sir Robert described himself as a Liberal-Conservative, but in his later years he opposed the policy of Gladstone, although after 1886 he championed the cause of home rule for Ireland. In 1871 he sold his father's collection of pictures to the National Gallery for £75,000, and in his later life he was troubled by financial difficul- ties. Sir Robert was interested in racing, and was known on the 44 PEEL— PEELE turf as Mr F. Robinson. He died in London on the pth of May 1895, and was succeeded as 4th baronet by his son, Sir Robert Peel (b. 1867). SIR FREDERICK PEEL (1823-1906), the prime minister's second son, was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a barrister in 1849. He entered parliament in that year, and with the exception of the period between 1857 and 1859 he remained in the House of Commons until 1865. In 1851-1852 and again in 1853-1855 he was under-secretary for the colonies; from 1855 to 1857 he was under-secretary for war; and from 1859 to 1865 he was secretary to the treasury. He became a privy councillor in 1857 and was knighted in 1869. Sir Frederick Peel's chief service to the state was in connexion with the railway and canal commission. He was appointed a com- missioner on the inception of this body in 1873, and was its president until its reconstruction in 1888, remaining a member of the commission until his death on the 6th of June 1906. The third son was SIR WILLIAM PEEL (1824-1858), and the youngest VISCOUNT PEEL (q.v.). Sir William was a sailor, who distinguished himself in the Crimea, where he gained the Victoria Cross, and also during the Indian Mutiny, being wounded at the relief of Lucknow. He died on the 27th of April 1858. Sir William wrote A Ride through the Nubian Desert (1852), giving an account of his travels in 1851. Two of Sir Robert Peel's brothers were also politicians of note. WILLIAM YATES PEEL (1789-1858), educated at Harrow and at St John's College, Cambridge, was a member of parliament from 1817 to 1837, and again from 1847 to 1852; he was under- secretary for home affairs in 1828, and was a lord of the treasury in 1830 and again in 1834-1835. JONATHAN PEEL (1799-1879) was first a soldier and then a member of parliament during the long period between 1826 and 1868, first representing Norwich and then Huntingdon. From 1841 to 1846 he was surveyor-general of the ordnance, and in 1858-1859 and again in 1866-1867 he was a very competent and successful secretary of state for war. General Peel was also an owner of racehorses, and in 1844 his horse Orlando won the Derby, after another horse, Running Rein, had been disqualified. For the history of the Peel family see Jane Ha worth, A Memoir of the Family of Peel from the year 1000 (1836). PEEL, a seaport and watering-place of the Isle of Man, on the W. coast, n£ m. W.N.W. of Douglas by the Isle of Man railway. Pop. (1901), 3304. It lies on Peel Bay, at the mouth of the small river Neb, which forms the harbour. The old town consists of narrow streets and lanes, but a modern resi- dential quarter has grown up to the east. On the west side of the river-mouth St Patrick's Isle is connected with the mainland by a causeway. It is occupied almost wholly by the ruins of Peel castle. St Patrick is said to have founded here the first church in Man, and a small chapel, dedicated to him, appears to date from the 8th or loth century. There is a round tower, also of very early date, resembling in certain particulars the round towers of Ireland. The ruined cathedral of St German has a transitional Norman choir, with a very early crypt beneath, a nave with an early English triplet at the west end, transepts, and a low and massive central tower still standing. There are remains of the bishops' palace, of the so-called Fenella's tower, famous through Scott's Peveril of the Peak, of the palace of the Lords of Man, of the keep and guardroom above the entrance to the castle, and of the Moare or great tower, while the whole is surrounded by battlements. There are also a large artificial mound supposed to be a defensive earthwork of higher antiquity than the castle, and another mound known as the Giant's Grave. The guardroom is associated with the ghostly apparition of the Moddey Dhoo (black dog), to which reference is made in Peveril of the Peak. In 1397 Richard II. condemned the earl of Warwick to imprisonment in Peel Castle for con- spiracy, and in 1444 Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, received a like sentence on the ground of having compassed the death of Henry VI. by magic. Peel has a long-established fishing industry, which, however, has declined in modern times. In the town the most notable building is the church of St German, with a fine tower and spire. Peel was called by the Northmen Holen (island, i.e. St Patrick's Isle) ; the existing name is Celtic, meaning " fort " (cf. the peel towers of the borderland of England and Scotland). PEEL, (i) The skin or rind of a fruit; thus " to peel " is to remove the outer covering of anything. The etymology of the word is closely connected with that of " pill," to plunder, surviving in " pillage." Both words are to be referred to French and thence to Latin. In French peler and piller, though now distinguished in meaning (the first used of stripping bark or rind, the second meaning to rob), were somewhat confused in application, and a similar confusion occurs in English till comparatively late. The Latin words from which they are derived are pellis, skin, and pilare, to strip of hair (pilus). (2) The name of a class of small fortified dwelling-houses built during the i6th century on the borders between Scotland and England. They are also known as " bastel-houses," i.e. " bastille-houses," and consist of a square massive tower with high pitched roof, the lower part being vaulted, the upper part containing a few living rooms. The entrance is on the upper floor, access being gained by a movable ladder. The vaulted ground-floor chamber served for the cattle when there was danger of attack. The word appears in various forms, e.g. pele, peil, and Latinized as pelum, &c. ; " pile " is also found used synonymously, but the New English Dictionary (s.ii. pile) considers the two words distinct. It seems more probable that the word is to be identified with " pale," a stake (Lat. palus). The earlier meaning of " peel " is a palisaded enclosure used as an additional defence for a fortified post or as an independent stronghold. PEELE, GEORGE (1558-0. 1598), English dramatist, was born in London in 1558. His father, who appears to have belonged to a Devonshire family, was clerk of Christ's Hospital, and wrote two treatises on book-keeping. George Peele was educated at Christ's Hospital, and entered Broadgates Hall (Pembroke College), Oxford, in 1571. In 1574 he removed to Christ Church, taking his B.A. degree in 1577, and proceeding M.A. in 1579. In 1579 the governors of Christ's Hospital requested their clerk to " discharge his house of his son, George Peele." It is not necessary to read into this anything more than that the governors insisted on his beginning to earn a livelihood. He went up to London about 1580, but in 1583 when Albertus Alasco (Albert Laski), a Polish nobleman, was entertained at Christ Church, Oxford, Peele was entrusted with the arrangement of two Latin plays by William Gager (fl. 1580-1619) presented on the occasion. He was also compli- mented by Dr Gager for an English verse translation of one of the Iphigenias of Euripides. In 1585 he was employed to write the Device of the Pageant borne before Woolslon Dixie, and in 1591 he devised the pageant in honour of another lord mayor, Sir William Webbe. This was the Descensus Astraeae (printed in the Harleian Miscellany, 1808), in which Queen Elizabeth is honoured as Astraea. Peele had married as early as 1583 a lady who brought him some property, which he speedily dissipated. Robert Greene, at the end of his Groats- worth of Wit, exhorts Peele to repentance, saying that he has, like himself, " been driven to extreme shifts for a living." The sorry traditions of his reckless life were emphasized by the use of his name in connexion with the apocryphal Merrie conceited Jests of George Peele (printed in 1607). Many of the stories had done service before, but there are personal touches that may be biographical. He died before 1598, for Francis Meres, writing in that year, speaks of his death in his Palladis Tamia. His pastoral comedy of The Araygnemenl of Paris, presented by the Children of the Chapel Royal before Queen Elizabeth perhaps as early as 1581, was printed anonymously in 1584. Charles Lamb, sending to Vincent Novello a song from this piece of Peek's, said that if it had been less uneven in execution Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess " had been but a second name in this sort of writing." Peele shows considerable art in his flattery. Paris is arraigned before Jupiter for having assigned the apple to Venus. Diana, with whom the final decision rests, gives the apple to none of the competitors but to a nymph called Eliza, whose identity is confirmed by the further PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS— PEERAGE 45 explanation, " whom some Zabeta call." The Famous Chronicle of King Edward the first, sirnamed Edward Longshankes, with his reiurne from the holy land. Also the life of Llcucllen, rebell in Wales. Lastly, the sinking of Queen Elinor, who suncke at Charingcrosse, and rose again at Potters-kith, now named Queenehith (printed 1593). This " chronicle history," formless enough, as the rambling title shows, is nevertheless an advance on the old chronicle plays, and marks a step towards the Shake- spearian historical drama. The Battell of Alcazar — with the death of Captaine Stukeley (acted 1588-1589, printed 1594), published anonymously, is attributed with much probability to Peele. The Old Wives Tale, registered in Stationers' Hall, perhaps more correctly, as "The Owlde wiies tale" (printed 1595), was followed by The Love of King David and fair Bethsabe (written c. 1588, printed 1599), which is notable as an example of Elizabethan drama drawn entirely from scriptural sources. Mr Fleay sees in it a political satire, and identifies Elizabeth and Leicester as David and Bathsheba, Mary Queen of Scots as Absalom. Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes (printed 1599) has been attributed to Peele, but on insufficient grounds. Among his occasional poems are " The Honour of the Garter," which has a prologue containing Peele's judgments on his contemporaries, and " Polyhymnia " (1590), a blank- verse description of the ceremonies attending the retirement of the queen's champion, Sir Henry Lee. This is concluded by the " Sonnet," " His golden locks time hath to silver turn'd," quoted by Thackeray in the 76th chapter of The Newcomes. To the Phoenix Nest in 1593 he contributed "The Praise of Chastity." Mr F. G. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) credits Peele with The Wisdom of Doctor Doddipoll (printed 1600), Wily Beguiled (printed 1606), The Life and Death of Jack Straw, a notable rebel (1587?), a share in the First and Second Parts of Henry VI., and on the authority of Wood and Winstanley, Alphonsus, Emperor of Germany. Peele belonged to the group of university scholars who, in Greene's phrase, " spent their wits in making playes." Greene went on to say that he was " in some things rarer, in nothing inferior," to Marlowe. Nashe in his preface to Greene's Mena- phon called him " the chief supporter of pleasance now living, the Atlas of Poetrie and primus iierborum artifex, whose first encrease, the Arraignement of Paris, might plead to your opinions his pregnant dexteritie of wit and manifold varietie of invention, wherein (me judice) hee goeth a step beyond all that write." This praise was not unfounded. The credit given to Greene and Marlowe for the increased dignity of English dramatic diction, and for the new smoothness infused into blank verse, must certainly be shared by Peele. Professor F. B. Gummere, in a critical essay prefixed to his edition of The Old Wives Tale, puts in another claim for Peele. In the contrast between the romantic story and the realistic dialogue he sees the first instance of humour quite foreign to the comic " business " of earlier comedy. The Old Wives Tale is a play within a play, slight enough to be perhaps better described as an interlude. Its background of rustic folk-lore gives it additional interest, and there is much fun poked at Gabriel Harvey and Stany hurst. Perhaps Huanebango,1 who parodies Harvey's hexameters, and actually quotes him on one occasion, may be regarded as representing that arch-enemy of Greene and his friends. Peele's Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1828, 1829-1839 and 1861); by A. H. Bullen (2 vols., 1888). An examination of the metrical peculiarities of his work is to be found in F. A. R. Lammerhirt's Georg Peele, Unlersuchungen liber sein Leben und seine Werke (Rostock, 1882). See also Professor F. B. Gummere, in Representative English Comedies (1903); and an edition of The Battell of Alcazar, printed for the Malone Society in 1907. PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS, an Irish Protestant secret society, formed about 1785. Its object was to protect the Protestant peasantry, and avenge their wrongs on the Roman Catholics. The " Boys " gained their name from the hour of dawn which 1 Mr Fleay goes so far as to see in the preposterous names of Huanebango's kith and kin puns on Harvey's father's trade. " Polymachaeroplacidus " he interprets as " Polly-make-a-rope- lass " ! they chose for their raids on the Roman Catholic villages. The Roman Catholics in return formed the society of " The Defenders." PEEPUL, or PIPUL (Ficus religiosa), the " sacred fig " tree of India, also called the Bo tree. It is not unlike the banyan, and is venerated both by the Buddhists of Ceylon and the Vaishnavite Hindus, who say that Vishnu was born beneath its shade. It is planted near temples and houses; its sap abounds in caoutchouc, and a good deal of lac is obtained from insects who feed upon the branches. The fruit is about the size of a walnut and is not much eaten. PEERAGE (Fr. pairage, med. Lat. paragium; M.E. pere, O. Fr. per, peer, later pair; Lat. paris, " equal "). Although in England the terms " peerage," " nobility," " House of Lords " are in common parlance frequently regarded as synonymous, in reality each expresses a different meaning. A man may be a peer and yet not a member of the House of Lords, a member of the House of Lords and yet not strictly a peer; though all peers (as the term is now understood) are members of the House of Lords either in esse or in posse. In the United Kingdom the rights, duties and privileges of peerage are centred in an individual; to the monarchial nations of the Continent nobility conveys the idea of family, as opposed to personal, privilege. Etymologically " peers " are " equals " (pares), and in Anglo- Norman days the word was invariably so understood. The feudal tenants-in-chief of the Crown were all the peers of each other, whether lords of one manor or of a hundred; so too a bishop had his ecclesiastical peer in a brother bishop, and the tenants of a manor their peers in their fellow-tenants. That even so late as the reign of John the word was still used in this general sense is clear from Magna Carta, for the term " judicium parium " therein must be understood to mean that every man had a right to be tried by his equals. This very right was asserted by the barons as a body in 1233 on behalf of Richard, earl marshal, who had been declared a traitor by the king's command, and whose lands were forfeited without proper trial. In 1233 the French bishop Peter des Roches, Henry III.'s minister, denied the barons' right to the claim set up on the ground that the king might judge all his subjects alike, there being, he said, no peers in England (Math. Paris. 389). The English barons undoubtedly were using the word in the sense it held in Magna Carta, while the bishop probably had in his mind the French peers (pairs de France) , a small and select body of feudatories possessed of exceptional privileges. In England the term was general, in France technical. The change in England was gradual, and probably gathered force as the gulf between the greater barons and the lesser widened, until in course of time, for judicial purposes, there came to be only two classes, the greater barons and the rest of the people. The barons remained triable by their own order (i.e. by their peers), whilst the rest of the people rapidly became subject to the general practice and procedure of the king's justices. The first use of the word " peers " as denoting those members of the baronage who were accustomed to receive regularly a writ of summons to parliament is found in the record of the proceedings against the Despensers in 1321 (Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 347), and from that time this restricted use of the word has remained its ordinary sense. Properly to understand the growth and constitution of the peerage it is necessary to trace the changes which occurred in the position of the Anglo-Norman baronage, first Anglo- through the gradual strengthening of royal supre- Normaa macy with the consequent decay of baronial power Baronage. locally, and subsequently by the consolidation of parliamentary institutions during the reigns of the first three Edwards. Before the conquest the national assembly of England (see PARLIAMENT) was the Witan, a gathering of notables owing their presence only to personal influence and standing. The Saxon The imposition of a modified feudal system resulted WHena- in a radical alteration. Membership of the Great i*1"0'- Councils of the Norman kings was primarily an incident of 46 PEERAGE tenure, one of the obligations the tenants-in-chief were bound to perform, although this membership gradually became restricted by the operation of the Royal prerogative to a small section of the Baronial class and eventually hereditary by custom. The Norman Councils may have arisen from the ashes of a Saxon Witenagemot, but there is little evidence of any historical continuity between the two. The Church in England, as in Christendom generally, occupied a position of paramount importance and far-reaching influence; its leaders, not alone from their special sanctity as ecclesiastics, but as practically the only educated men of the period, of necessity were among the chief advisers of every ruler in Western Europe. In England churchmen formed a large proportion of the Witan, the more influential of the great landowners making up the rest of its membership. In place of the scattered individual and absolute ownership of Saxon days the Conqueror became practically the sole Norman owner of the soil. The change, though not imme- Feudai diately complete, followed rapidly as the country Tenure. settled down and the power of the Crown extended to its outlying frontiers. As Saxon land gradually passed into Norman hands the new owners became direct tenants of the king. Provided their loyal and military obligations were duly performed they had fixity of tenure for themselves and their heirs. In addition fixed money payments were exacted on the succession of the heir, when the king's eldest son was knighted, his eldest daughter married, or his person ransomed from captivity. In like manner and under similar conditions the king's tenants, or as they were termed tenants-in-chief, sub-granted the greater portion of their holdings to their own immediate followers. Under Norman methods the manor was the unit of local government and jurisdiction, and when land was given away by the king the gift invariably took the form of a grant of one or more manors. When he brought England into subjection the Conqueror's main idea was to exalt the central power of the Crown at the expense of its feudatories, and the first two centuries following the conquest tell one long tale of opposition by the great tenants- in-chief to a steadily growing and unifying royal pressure. With this idea of royal supremacy firmly fixed in his mind, William's grants, excepting outlying territory such as the marches of Wales or the debateable ground of the Scottish border, which needed special consideration, were seldom in bulk, but took the form of manors scattered over many counties. Under such conditions it was practically impossible for a great tenant to set up a powerful imperium in imperio (such as the fiefs of Normandy, Brittany and Burgundy), as his forces were dis- tributed over the country, and could be reached by the long arm of royal power, acting through the sheriff of every county, long before they could effectively come together for fighting purposes. The tenants-in-chief were termed generally barons (see BARON) and may be regarded historically as the parents of the peers of later days. The pages of Domesday (1086), the early Norman fiscal record of England, show how unevenly the land was distributed; of the fifteen hundred odd tenants mentioned the majority held but two or three manors, while a favoured few possessed more than a hundred each. Land was then the only source of wealth, and the number of a baron's manors might well be regarded as a correct index of his importance. The king's tenants owed yet another duty, the service of attending the King's Court (curia regis), and out of this custom The King's grew tlle Parliaments of later days. In theory all Cou,^ the king's tenants-in-chief, great and small, had a right to be present as incident to their tenure. It has therefore been argued by some authorities that as the Conqueror's system of tenure constituted him the sole owner of the land, attendance at his courts was solely an incident of tenure, the Church having been compelled to accept the same conditions as those imposed on laymen. But, as already pointed out, the change in tenure had not been immediate, and there had been no general forfeiture suffered by ecclesiastical bodies; consequently throughout the early years of William's reign some of the English bishops and abbots attended his courts as much by virtue of their personal and ecclesiastical importance as by right of tenure. The King's Court was held regularly at the three great festivals of the Church and at such other times as were deemed advisable. The assembly for several generations neither possessed nor pretended to any legislative powers. Legislative power was a product of later years, and grew out of the custom of the Estates granting supplies only on condition that their grievances were first redressed. The great bulk of the tenants were present for the purpose of assenting to special taxation above and beyond their ordinary feudal dues. When necessary a general summons to attend was sent through the sheriff of every county, who controlled a system of local government which enabled him to reach every tenant. In course of time to a certain number of barons and high ecclesiastics, either from the great extent of their possessions, their official duties about the king or their personal importance, it became customary to issue a personal writ of summons, thus distinguishing them from the general mass summoned through the sheriff. That this custom was in being within a century of the Conquest is clear from an incident in the bitter fight for supremacy between Archbishop Becket and Henry II. in 1164 (Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), it being recorded that the king withheld the Archbishop's personal summons to parliament, and put upon him the indignity of a summons through the sheriff. During the succeeding fifty years the line becomes even more definite, though it is evident that the Crown sometimes dis- regarded the custom, as the barons are found complaining that many of their number deemed entitled to a personal summons had frequently been overlooked. The sequel to these complaints is found in Magna Carta, wherein it is provided that the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls and greater barons are to be called up to the Magaa Carta council by writ directed to each severally; and all and Personal who hold of the king in chief, below the rank of Summons greater barons, are to be summoned by a general ^afores writ addressed to the sheriff of their shire.1 Magna Bar-ones. Carta thus indicates the existence of two definite sections of the king's tenants, a division which had evidently persisted for some time. The " greater barons " are the immediate parents of the peerages of later days, every member of which for more than four centuries had a seat in the House of Lords. As for the rest of the tenants-in-chief, poorer in estate and therefore of less consequence, it is sufficient here to note that they fell back into the general mass of country families, and that their representatives, the knights of the shire, after some hesitation, at length joined forces with the city and burgher representatives to form the House of Commons. In 1254, instead of the general summons through the sheriff to all the lesser tenants-in-chief, the king requires them to elect two knights for each shire to attend the council as the accredited representative of their fellows. In the closing days of 1264 Simon de Montfort sum- moned to meet him early in 1 265 the first parliament worthy of the name, a council in which prelates, earls and greater barons, knights of the shire, citizens and burghers were present, thus constituting a representation of all classes of people. It has been argued that this assembly cannot be regarded as a full parlia- ment, inasmuch as Simon de Montfort summoned personally only such members of the baronage as were favourable to his cause, and issued writs generally only to those counties and cities upon which he could rely to return representatives in support of his policy. Stubbs holds the view that the first assembly we ought to regard as a full parliament was the Model Parliament which met at Westminster in 1295. This Model parliament, unlike Simon's partisan assembly of Parliament 1 265, was free and representative. To every spiritual Oil29s- 1 Et ab habendum commune consilium regni . . . summoneri faciemus archiepiscopos, episcopos, abbates, comites et majores barones sigillatim per litteras nostras et praeterea faciemus summoneri in general! per vicecomes et ballivos nostros omnes illos qui de nobis tenent in capite (cited in Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 547 n.). Parliament of!2S4. PEERAGE 47 and temporal baron accustomed to receive an individual writ, one was issued. Every county elected its knights and every city or borough of any importance was instructed by the sheriff to elect and to return its allotted number of representatives. Stubbs's view (Const. Hist. ii. 223) may prob- ably be regarded as authoritative, inasmuch as it was adopted by Lord Ashbourne in the Norfolk peerage case of 1906 (Law Reports [rgoy], A.C. at p. 15). Edward I. held frequent parlia- ments throughout his reign, and although many must be regarded as merely baronial councils, nevertheless year after year, on all important occasions, the knights of the shire and the citizens appear in their places. The parliament of Shrews- bury in 1283, for instance, has been claimed as a full parliament in several peerage cases, but no clear decision on the point has ever been given by the Committee for Privileges. It may be taken for granted, however, that any assembly held since 1295, which did not conform substantially to the model of that year, cannot be regarded constitutionally as a full parliament. The point is even of modern importance, as in order to establish the existence of a barony by writ it must be proved that the claimant's ancestor was summoned by individual writ to a full parliament, and that either he himself or one of his direct descendants was present in parliament. It is now convenient to consider the various grades into which the members of the peerage are grouped, and their relative positions. An examination of the early writs issued to individuals shows that the baronage con- sisted of archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, earls and barons. In course of time every member of these classes came to hold his land by feudal tenure from the Crown, and eventually in every instance the writs issued as an incident of tenure. It is therefore necessary to discover, if possible, what combination of attributes clothed the greater baron with a right to receive the king's personal writ of summons. While the archbishops and bishops received their writs with regularity, the summonses to heads of ecclesiastical houses and greater barons were intermittent. The prelate held an office which lived on regardless of the fate of its temporary holder, and if by reason of death, absence or translation the office became vacant, a writ still issued to the " Guardian of the Spiritualities." The abbot, on the other hand, often outside the jurisdiction of the English Church, and owing allegiance to a foreign order, was but the personal representative of a land-holding community. It has already been pointed out that the amount of land held direct from the king by individuals varied greatly, and that the extent of his holding must have had something to do with a man's importance. A landless noble in those days was inconceivable. The conclusion, then, may be drawn that in theory the issue of a writ was at the pleasure of the Crown, and that in practice the moving factor in the case of the prelates was office and personal importance, and in the case of abbots and barons probably, in the main, extent of possession. There is nothing however to show that in the early years of the custom any person had a right to claim a writ if it were the king's pleasure or caprice to withhold it and to treat everyone not summoned individually as being duly summoned under the general writs issued to the sheriff of the county. The next point for consideration is when did the peerage, as the baronage subsequently came to be called, develop into a body definitely hereditary ? Here again growth was gradual and somewhat obscure. Throughout the reigns of the Edwards summonses were not always issued to the same individual for successive parliaments; and it is quite certain that the king never considered the issue of one writ to an individual bound the Crown to its repetition for the rest of his life, much less to his heirs in perpetuity. Again we must look to tenure for an explanation. The custom of primogeniture tended to secure estates in strict family succession, an'd if extent of possession had originally extracted the acknowledgment of a personal summons from the Crown it is more than probable that as successive heirs came into their inheritance they too would similarly be acknowledged. In early days the summons was a burden to be suffered of necessity, an unpleasant incident of tenure, in itself undesirable, and probably so regarded by the majority of recipients during at least the two centuries following the Conquest. The age of the Edwards was in the main a rule of settled law, of increase in population generally, of growing power in the large landowners and of opportunities for those about the person of the king. The times were changing, and in place of the idea of the writ being a burden, its receipt gradually came to be looked upon as a mark of royal favour, a recognition of position and an opportunity leading on to fortune. Once such a view was established it is easy to understand how desirous any individual would be to preserve so valuable a privilege for his posterity; and primogeniture with its strict settlement of estates pointed out an easy way. The Crown was itself an hereditary dignity; and what more natural than that it should be surrounded by an hereditary peerage ? Thus the free and indiscriminate choice of the Crown became fettered by the custom that once a summons had been issued to an individual to sit in parliament and he had obeyed that summons he thereby acquired a right of summons for the rest of his lifetime; and in later years when the doctrine of nobility of blood became established his descendants were held to have acquired the same privilege by hereditary right. The earl's position in the baronage needs some explanation. Various suggestions have been made as to Saxon or Norman origin of a high official nature, but historical opinion seems generally to incline towards the theory that the term was a name of dignity conferred by royal prerogative on a person already classed among the greater barons. At first the dignity was official and certainly not hereditary, and the name of a county of which he is said to have been an officer in the king's name was not essential to his dignity as an earl. There were also men who, though Scottish and Norman earls, and commonly so addressed and summoned to parliament, were rated in England as barons (Lords Reports, ii. 116, 120; Earldom of Norfolk Peerage Case, Law Reports [1907], A.C. p. 18). Earls received individual summonses to parliament by the name of Earl (q.v.) ; but there is reason to believe, as already mentioned, that in early days at any rate they sat not in right of their earldoms but by tenure as members of the baronage. If we review the political situation at the beginning of the I4th century a great change is evident. The line between those members of the baronage in parliament and writ the rest of the people is firmly and clearly drawn. Supersedes Tenure as the sole qualification for presence in the Teaure- national assembly has disappeared, and in its place there appears for the baronage a system of royal selection and for the rest of the people one of representation. The rules and customs of law relating to the baronage slowly crystallized so as to provide the House of Lords, the history of which for generations is the history of the peerage of England, whilst the representative part of parliament, after shedding the lower clergy, ultimately became the House of Commons. Until the reign of Richard II. there is no trace of any use of the term baron (q.v.) as importing a personal dignity existing apart from the tenure of land, barons owing their seats in parlia- ment to tenure and writ combined. This is borne out by the fact that a husband was often summoned to parliament in his wife's right and name, and while she lived fulfilled those feudal, military and parliamentary obligations attached to her lands which the physical disabilities of sex prevented her from carrying out in her own person (Pike, House of Lords, p. 103). Primogeniture, a custom somewhat uncertain in early Anglo- Norman days, had rapidly developed into a definite rule of law. As feudal dignities were in their origin inseparable peerage from the tenure of land it is not surprising that they becomes a too followed a similar course of descent, although Personal as the idea of a dignity being exclusively personal Dl*nlty- gradually emerged, some necessary deviations from the rules of law relating to the descent of land inevitably resulted. In the eleventh year of his reign Richard II. created by letters patent 48 PEERAGE John Beauchamp " Lord de Beauchamp and baron of Kydder- mynster, to hold to him and the heirs of his body." These letters patent were not founded on any right by tenure of land possessed by Beauchamp, for the king makes him " for his good services and in respect of the place which he had holden at the coronation (i.e. steward of the household) and might in future hold in the king's councils and parliaments, and for his noble descent, and his abilities and discretion, one of the peers and barons of the king- dom of England; willing that the said John and the heirs-male of his body issuing, should have the state of baron and should be called by the name of Lord de Beauchamp and Baron of Kyddermynster." The grant rested wholly on the grace and favour of the Crown and was a personal reward for services rendered. Here then is a barony entirely a personal dignity and quite unconnected with land. From Richard's reign to the present day baronies (and indeed all other peerage honours) have continued to be conferred by patent. The custom of summons by writ was not in any way interfered with, the patent operating merely to declare the dignity and to define its devolu- tion. Summons alone still continued side by side for many generations with summons founded on patent; but after the reign of Henry VIII. the former method fell into disuse, and during the last two hundred and fifty years there have been no new creations by writ of summons alone.1 So from the reign of Richard II. barons were of two classes, the older, and more ancient in lineage summoned by writ alone, the honours descending to heirs-general, and the newer created by letters patent, the terms of which governed the issue of the summons and prescribed the devolution of the peerage in the line almost invariably of the direct male descendants of the person first ennobled. The principle of hereditary succession so clearly recognized in the Beauchamp creation is good evidence to show that a prescriptive right of hereditary summons probably existed in those families whose members had long been accustomed to receive individual writs. By the time the House of Lancaster was firmly seated on the throne it may be taken that the peerage had become a body of men possessing well-defined personal privileges and holding personal dignities capable of descending to their heirs. The early origin of peerages was so closely connected with the tenure of land that the idea long prevailed that there were Ptera s b or'8inally peerages by tenure only, i.e. dignities Tenure. * or titles annexed to the possession (and so following it on alienation) of certain lands held in chief of the king. The older writers, Glanville (bk. ix. cc. 4, 6) and Bracton (bk. ii. c. 16), lend some colour to the view. They are followed, but not very definitely, by Coke, Selden and Madox. Black- stone, who discusses the question in his Commentaries (bk. i. c. xii.), seems to believe that such dignities existed in pre- parliamentary days but says further: " When alienations grew to be frequent, the dignity of peerage was confined to the lineage of the party ennobled, and instead of territorial became per- sonal." The Earldom of Arundel case, in 1433, at first sight seems to confirm the theory, but it may be noted that when in later years this descent came to be discussed the high authority of an act of parliament was found necessary to confirm the succes- sion to the dignity. The case is discussed at some length in the Lords Reports (ii. 115), the committee regarding it as an anomaly from which no useful precedent can be drawn. Other cases discussed in the same Report are those of De Lisle, Abergavenny, Fitzwalter and Berkeley. The Berkeley case of 1858-1861 (better reported 8 H.L.C. 21) is essential for the student who wishes to examine the question carefully; and may be regarded as finally putting an end to any idea of bare tenure as an existing means of establishing a peerage right (see also Cruise on Dignities, 2nd ed. pp. 60 et seq.). The main attribute of a peerage is that hereditary and inalien- 1 Not intentional at any rate. In some cases where it was in- tended to call a son up in his father's barony, a mistake in the name has been made with the result that a new peerage by writ of sum- mons has been created. The barony of Buller, of Moore Park (cr. 1663), now in abeyance, is said to be an instance of such a mistake. able quality which ennobles the blood of the holder and his heirs, or, as a great judge put it in 1625 in the Earldom of Oxford case, " he cannot alien or give away this in- heritance because it is a personal dignity annexed toafleniWe. to the posterity and fixed in the blood " (Dodridge, J., at p. 123, Sir W. Jones's Reports). Were the theory of barony by tenure accepted it would be possible for the temporary holder of such a barony to sell it or even to will it away to a stranger possessing none of the holder's blood, with the effect that, in the words of Lord Chancellor Campbell (Berkeley case, 8 H.L.C. 77), " there might be various individuals and various lines of peers successively ennobled and created peers of parlia- ment by a subject," an impossible condition of affairs in a country where the sovereign has always been the' fountain of honour. Moreover, while no peerage honour can be extinguished or surrendered, the owner of lands can freely dispose of such rights as he possesses by sale or transfer. Finally we may accept the verdict in the Fitzwalter case of 1669 (Cruise, ibid. p. 66), which was adopted by the House of Lords in the Berkeley case: " and the nature of a barony by tenure being discussed, it was found to have been discontinued for many ages, and not in being, and so not fit to be revived or to admit any pretence or right of succession thereupon." Until the reign of Edward III. the peerage consisted only of high ecclesiastics, earls and barons. The earls were barons with their special name of dignity added, and their Dukes names always appear on the rolls before those of the barons. In 1337 King Edward created his son, the Black Prince, duke of Cornwall, giving him precedence over the rest of the peerage. The letters patent (under which the present heir to the throne now holds the dukedom) limited the dignity in perpetuity to the first-born son of the king of England.2 Subsequently several members of the royal family were created dukes, but no subject received such an honour until fifty years later, when Richard II. created his favourite Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, duke of Ireland (for life). The original intention may have been to confine the dignity to the blood royal, as with the exception of de Vere it was some years before a dukedom was again conferred on a subject. In 1385 Richard II. had created Robert de Vere marquess of Dublin, thus importing an entirely new and unknown title into the peerage. The grant was, however, only for life, Marquesses and was in fact resumed by the Crown in 1387, when its recipient was created duke of Ireland. It was not until 1397 that another creation was made, this time in favour of one of the blood royal, John de Beaufort, eldest legitimated son of John of Gaunt, who became marquess of Dorset. His title was shortly afterwards taken away by Henry IV 's first parliament. Subsequently creations were made only at long intervals, that of Winchester (1551) being the only one (of old date) under which an English marquess at present sits in the House of Lords (see MARQUESS). Under the name of viscount (q.v.) Henry VI. added yet another order, and the last in point of time, to the peerage, creating in 1440, John, Baron Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont Vlscouatti and giving him precedence next above the barons. The name of this dignity was also borrowed from the Continent, having been in use for some time as a title of honour in the king's French possessions. None of the new titles above mentioned ever carried with them any official position; they were conferred originally as additional honours on men who were already members of the peerage. The application of the hereditary principle to temporal peerages early differentiated their holders from the spiritual peers. Both spiritual and temporal peers were equally lords of parliament, but hereditary preten- sions on the one side and ecclesiastical exclusiveness on the other soon drew a sharp line of division between the two orders. Gradually the temporal peers, strong in* their doctrine of " ennobled " blood, came to consider that theirs was an order * .... principi ct ipsius et haeredum suorum Regum Angliae filiis primogenitis (The Prince's Case, 8 Co. Rep. 273; 77 E.R. 513). PEERAGE 49 above and beyond all other lords of parliament, and before long, arrogated to themselves the exclusive right to be called peers, and as such the only persons entitled to the privileges of peerage. In early parliamentary days it had been the custom to summon regularly to attend the Lords for deliberative purposes another body of men — the judges. Less important than the prelates, they also owed their summons to official position, and like them were eventually overshadowed by the hereditary principle. The force of hereditary right gave to ennobled blood a position never possessed by either judge or prelate. It is true the prelate, in point of antiquity, was senior to both earl and baron, and in many cases superior in extent of possessions; but these attributes belonged to his office, the resignation or deprivation of which would at any time have caused him to lose his writ of summons. The writ issued really to the office. The judge's position was even worse. His judicial office evoked the writ, but at any moment he might be deprived of that office at the arbitrary pleasure of the Crown. It is doubtful whether the judges ever had voice and vote in the same sense as the other lords of parliament, and even if they had they soon came to be regarded merely as counsellors and assessors. The pretensions of the lay peers were not admitted without a struggle on the part of the prelates, who made the mistake of aiming at the establishment of a privileged position for their own order while endeavouring to retain every right possessed by their lay brethren. They fell between two stools, lost their position as peers, and were beaten back in their fight for eccle- siastical privilege. In the reign of Richard II. the prelates are found clearly defining their position. Neville, archbishop of York, de Vere, duke of Ireland and others, were " appealed " for treason, and the archbishop of Canterbury took the oppor- tunity in parliament of making clear the rights of his order. He said " of right and by the custom of the realm of England it belongeth to the Archbishop of Canterbury for the time being as well as others his suffragans, brethren and fellow bishops, abbots and priors and other prelates whatsoever, holding of our lord'the king by barony, to be present in person in all the king's parliaments whatsoever as Peers of the Realm aforesaid, and there with the other Peers of the Realm, and with other persons having the right to be there present, to advise, treat, ordain, establish and determine as to the affairs of the realm and other matters there wont to be treated and to do all else which there presses to be done." After this he went on to say that as to the particular matters in question they intended to be present and to take their part in all matters brought before parliament " save our estate and order and that of each of the prelates in all things. But because in the present parliament there is question of certain matters, in which it is not lawful for us or anyone of the prelates according to the institute of the Holy Canons in any manner, to take part personally " we intend to retire " saving always the rights of our peerage " (Rot. Parl. ii Rich. II. No. 6 — printed iii. 236-237). At the desire of the prelates this statement of their rights was duly enrolled in parlia- ment, but their claim to be peers was neither denied nor admitted, and the proceedings went on without them. For themselves Churchmen never claimed the privilege of trial by peers. Whenever they were arraigned they claimed to be altogether outside secular jurisdiction, and it was therefore a matter of small concern to them whether they were in the hands of peers or peasants. Such was the attitude of Becket towards Henry II. (Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), of Archbishop Stratford towards Edward III. (Pike, pp. 188 seq.), and it was probably with the history of these two cases in his mind that the archbishop of Richard II. 's reign speaks of the saving rights of his order. These rights were never willingly admitted in England, and as the pope's power for interference waned so the prelates were forced under the ordinary law of the land. Henry VIII. cer- tainly never regarded ecclesiastics as peers, as may be gathered from a grant early in his reign to the then abbot of Tavistock for himself and each succeeding abbot the right to be " one of the spiritual and religious lords of parliament." As to abbots, the subsequent dissolution of the monasteries put an end to the discussion. In this reign also Cranmer and Fisher, though the former was archbishop of Canterbury, were tried by a common jury, and they certainly claimed no privilege of peerage. The Standing Orders of the House of Lords for 1625 contain the statement that " Bishops are only Lords of Parliament and not Peers " (Lords Journals, iii. 349). In 1640 the " Lords Spiritual " were altogether excluded from the House of Lords by act of parliament, and were not brought back until the second year of the Restoration. From that period there has been no ques- tion as to their position. Peers and holders by barony when parliaments first met, by the end of the isth century they had put themselves outside the pale of the peerage. To-day their ancient lands are vested in trustees (Ecclesiastical Commissioners), and office alone constitutes a bishop's qualification, and that only if he occupies one of the five great sees of Canterbury, York, London, Durham and Winchester, or is of sufficient seniority in appointment to fill one of the remaining twenty-one places on the bench of bishops in the house — for there are now only twenty-six seats for thirty-six prelates. The reign of Henry VIII. brought about far-reaching changes in the position of the peerage. When that king ascended the throne the hereditary element was in a decided Henry vm. minority, but the balance was gradually redressed and the until at length a bare hereditary majority was Peerage. secured and the dissolution of the monasteries made possible. The peers, many now grown fat on abbey lands, at once began to consolidate their position; precedents were eagerly sought for, and the doctrine of ennobled blood began to find definite and vigorous expression. So long, the peers declared, as there is any ennobled blood, a peerage must exist; and it can be extinguished only by act Blood * of parliament, failure of heirs, or upon corruption of blood by attainder. Stubbs writes with some contempt of the doctrine (Const. Hist. iii. 458 n.), apparently on the ground that it is absurd to speak of ennobled blood so long as the children of a peer still remain commoners. The doctrine is neither unreasonable nor illogical. By it is meant blood in which there always exists a capacity to inherit a particular peerage, and every person in whose veins the ennobled blood runs is competent to occupy the peerage if the chances of nature should remove those who are senior to him in the line of descent. A good illustration is the popular use of the term " blood royal," which of course does not mean that an individual of the blood royal necessarily occupies a throne but that he or she is in the line of succession to it. Similarly, persons of " ennobled blood " are not necessarily peers but in the line of descent to peerages, to which they may or may not succeed. (See NOBILITY.) The English peer is not like the continental noble the member of a caste, but the holder for life of an office clothed with high and exceptional legislative and judicial attributes entirely dependent on his office and exercisable only in conjunction with his fellow peers in parliament assembled. Such privileges as he possesses are due primarily to his office rather than to his blood. His children are commoners, who though accorded courtesy titles by the usage of society have no legal privileges not shared with the humblest of British subjects. It is this peculiar official quality of an English peerage which saved England from the curse of a privileged noble caste such as that which so long barred all progress in France and Germany. As a result there are hundreds of families in the United Kingdom who, commoners there, would yet, from their purity of blood, position and influence, be accounted noble in any continental country. From the doctrine of nobility of blood is derived the rule of law that no peerage (a Scots peerage is under Scots Law) can be surrendered, extinguished, or in any way got rid of unless the blood be corrupted. The rule is well illustrated by the earldom of Norfolk case (Law Reports [1007], A. C. 10) in which its development was traced, and the principle authoritatively confirmed. In 1302 the hereditary earldom of Norfolk (created in 1135) was in the possession of Hugh Bygod, one of the most powerful nobles of PEERAGE Plantagenet days. The earl got into difficulties, and as some say, for a consideration, and others, to spite his brother and debtor, surrendered his earldom and all the lands thereto belonging, to King Edward I. from whom he subsequently received it back with an altered limitation to himself and the heirs of his body. As he was a childless old man this was practi- cally a short life interest to the exclusion of all his relatives, the nearest of whom but for the surrender would have succeeded. Soon after Bygod died, and the earldom fell into the hands of Edward II. who granted it to his brother Thomas of Brotherton in 1312. Lord Mowbray, the lineal descendant of this Thomas, recently came forward and claimed the earldom, but in 1906 the House of Lords decided against his claim on the ground that in law Bygod's surrender was invalid, and that therefore Edward II. had no valid power to grant this particular earldom to Thomas of Brotherton. Historically there is little to support such a decision, and indeed this rigid application of the law is of comparatively recent date. Without doubt king, nobles and lawyers alike were all agreed, right down to Tudor days, that such surrenders were entirely valid. Many certainly were made, but, according to the decision of 1906, any living heirs of line of those nobles who thus got rid of their peerage honours can, if their pedigrees be provable, come to the House of Lords with a fair chance of reviving the ancient honours. Even as late as 1663 we find the Crown, naturally with the concurrence of its legal advisers, stating in the barony of Lucas patent (1663) that, on the appearance of co-heirs to a barony, the honour may be suspended or extinguished at the royal pleasure. The royal view of the law (at any rate as to extinction) was strongly objected to by the Lords, who guarded their privileges in Stuart days even more strictly than did the Commons. As early as 1626, in the celebrated dispute over the earldom of Oxford, the lord great chamberlainship and the baronies of Bolebec, Badlesmere and Sandford, Mr Justice Dodridge, who had been called in by the Lords to advise them, said that an earl could not give away or alien his inheritance, because it was " a personal dignity annexed to the posterity and fixed in the blood." Fourteen years later, in the Grey de Ruthyn case, the Lords solemnly resolved, " That no peer of the realm can drown or extinguish his honour (but that it descends unto his descendants), neither by surrender, grant, fine nor any other conveyance to the king." In 1678 the Lords became, if possible, even more definite, in view probably of the fact that the Crown had disregarded the Grey de Ruthyn resolution, having in 1660 taken into its hands, by surrender of Robert Villiers, 2nd viscount, the viscounty of Purbeck. In 1676 the son of the second viscount applied for his writ of summons, and on the advice of Sir William Jones, the attorney-general, who reported that " this (surrender) was a considerable question, never before resolved that he knew of," the king referred the whole matter to the Lords. The Lords were very explicit, being " unanimously of the opinion, and do resolve that no fine now levied, or at any time hereafter to be levied by the king, can bar such title of honour (i.e. of a peer of the realm), or the right of any person claiming under him that levied, or shall levy such fine." On these resolutions passed in the seventeenth century, the Lords of 1906 find illegal a surrender of 1302. The result seems strange, but it is, at any rate, logical from the legal point of view. It was urged that in 1302 no real parliament, in the sense applied to those of later years, was in existence; and consequently, a resolution founded on parliamentary principles should not apply. To this answer was made: Although it may be true that the law and practice of parliament had not then crystallized into the definite shape of even a hundred years later, the " Model Parliament " was summoned seven years before Bygod's surrender, and it is neces- sary to have some definite occurrence from which to date a legal beginning — a point of law with which an historian can have little sympathy. Briefly, perhaps, from the teaching of the case it may be permissible to state the rule as follows: In early days the Norman and Plantagenet kings took upon themselves to deal with the barons in a manner which, though illegal, was suffered because no one dared oppose them; but as time went on, becom- ing stronger and more determined to enforce their privileges and exalt their order the peers were able to compel recognition of their rights, and their resolutions in Stuart days were only declaratory of law which had always existed, but had been systematically disregarded by the Crown. This being so, resolutions of the peers deliberately and expressly laid down must, when in point, always be followed. The application of the doctrine of corruption of blood to peerages arises out of their close connexion with the tenure of land, peerage dignities never having been regarded Attalaaer as personal until well on into the I4th century. and cor- Conviction for any kind of felony — and treason ruptloa of originally was a form of felony — was always followed B/0°* by attainder. This resulted in the immediate corruption of the blood of the offender, and its capacity for inheritance was lost for ever. Such corruption with all its consequences could be set aside only by act of parliament. This stringent rule of forfeiture was to some extent mitigated by the passing in 1285 of the statute De Donis Conditionalibus (Blackstone's Commen- taries, ii. 1 1 6) which made possible the creation of estates tail, and when a tenant-in-tail was attainted forfeiture extended only to his life interest. The statute De Donis was soon applied by the judges to such dignities as were entailed (e.g. dignities conferred by patent with limitations in tail), but it never affected baronies by writ, which were not estates in tail but in the nature of estates in fee simple descendible to heirs general. In the reign of Henry VIII. an act was passed (1534) which brought estates tail within the law of forfeiture, but for high treason only. The position then became that peerages of any kind were for- feitable by attainder following on high treason, while baronies by writ remained as before forfeitable for attainder following on felony. In 1708, just after the Union with Scotland, an act was passed by which on the death of the Pretender and three years after Queen Anne's death the effects of corruption of blood consequent on attainder for high treason were to be abolished, and the actual offender only to be punished (stat. "7 Anne, c. 21, § 10). Owing to the 1745 rising, the operation of this act was postponed until the decease of the Pretender and all his sons (stat. 17 Geo. II. c. 39, § 3). In 1814 forfeiture for every crime other than high and petty treason and murder was re- stricted to the lifetime of the person attainted (stat. 54 Geo. III. c. 145). Finally in 1870 forfeiture, except upon outlawry, was altogether abolished and it was provided that " no judgment of or for any treason or felony should cause any attainder or corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat." The necessity for ascertaining the exact condition of the law with regard to attainder throughout the whole period of English parliamentary history will be realized when it is remembered that there still exist dormant and abeyant peerages dating from 1295 onwards which may at any time be the subject of claim before the House of Lords, and if any attainders exist in the history of such peerages the law governing their consequences is not the law as it exists to-day but as it existed when the attainder occurred. The dukedom of Atholl case of 1764 is interesting as showing the effect of attainder on a peerage where the person attainted does not actually succeed. John first duke of Atholl died in 1725 leaving two sons James and George. George the younger was attainted of treason in 1745 and died in 1760, leaving a son John. James, the second son of the first duke, who had succeeded his father in 1725 died in 1764 without issue. John his nephew then claimed the dukedom, and was allowed it on the ground that his father never having been in the possession of the dukedom his attainder could not bar his son, who succeeds by reason of his heirship to his uncle. It would have been otherwise had the younger son outlived his brother, for he would then have succeeded to the dukedom and so destroyed it by his attainder. In many cases there have been passed special parliamentary acts of attainder and forfeiture, and these, of course, operate apart from the general law. In any event, attainder and forfeiture of a dignity, whether resulting from the rules of the common law or from special or general acts of parliament can PEERAGE only be reversed by act of parliament. The procedure in reversing an attainder and recovering a dignity is as follows. The Crown signifies its pleasure that a bill of restoration shall be prepared and signs it. The bill is then brought in to the House of Lords, passed there, and sent to the Commons for assent. The last bills of the kind became law in 1876, when Earl Cowper procured the removal of the attainder on one of his Ormond ancestors and so by purging the blood of corruption became entitled to, and was allowed, the barony of Butler of Moore Park (created in 1663). There should also be noted the Earldom of Mar Restitution Act 1885, which, while mainly con- firmatory of a disputed succession, at the same time reversed any attainders that existed. The House of Lords grew steadily throughout the Tudor period, and during the reign of the first two Stuarts underwent a still greater increase. In the Great Rebellion the majority of the peers were the king's stoutest supporters and thus inevitably involved themselves in the ruin of the royal cause. Immediately after the execution of Charles I. the Republicans proceeded Common- to sweep away everything which savoured of mon- weaith archy and aristocracy. The House of Commons Abolition of votec} tne Lords " useless and dangerous," got rid of e ° *" them as a part of parliament by the simple expedient of a resolution (Comms. Journs. 1648-1649, vi. in) and placed the sole executive power in Cromwell's hands, but there was no direct abolition of the peerage as such. Evidently it took Cromwell but little time to realize the fallacy, in practice, of CromweiFs single-chamber government, as he is found ten House of years after the " useless and dangerous " resolu- Lords. jjon jjusv establishing a second chamber.1 What to call it aroused much discussion, and eventually the unruly Commons consented to speak of and deal with " the other house." It is very difficult to realize what was the constitution of this body, so short was its life and so contemptuous its treat- ment by the Commons. The members of " the other house " were summoned by writs under the Great Seal, similar in form to those used to summon peers of past days. Some sixty writs were issued, and presumably their recipients were entitled thereby to sit for the duration of the parliament to which they were summoned; but it may be considered as certain that Cromwell's lords were never regarded as hereditary peers. They were entitled to the courtesy appellation " Lord " and appear to have been in the main substantial men — existing peers, judges, distinguished lawyers and members of well-known county families. Judging from Cromwell's speech at the opening of parliament, and subsequent entries in Whitelock's diaries, the new house appears to have had revising functions both of a legislative and judicial nature and also the duty of taking cognizance of foreign affairs. Cromwell certainly issued two patents of hereditary peerage — the barony of Burnell and the barony of Gilsland (with which went the viscounty of Howard of Morpeth), but neither title was recognized on the Restoration, and it does not appear that the possession of these titles ever conferred on their holders any hereditary right to a writ of summons to sit in "the other house." Whitelock himself was promised a viscounty by Cromwell, but no patent ever appears to have passed the Great Seal. Eventually business between the two houses grew impossible, and Cromwell was compelled to dissolve parliament. Richard's first parliament also contained Lords as well as Commons, the latter considerately voting " to transact business with the persons sitting in the other house as an House of Parliament, saving the right of the peers who had been faithful to the parliament," the saving clause evidently a loophole for the future. The dissolution of this parliament and the retirement of the protector Richard into private life preceded by only a few months the restoration to the throne of Charles II. With the king the peers returned to their ancient places. From the reign of William of Orange the peerage has been freshened by a steady stream of men who as a rule have served 1 Whitelock's Memorials of English Affairs (in the reign of Charles I. and up to the Restoration) (1853 ed. iv. 313). their country as statesmen, lawyers and soldiers. Little of note occurred in the history of the peerage until the reign of Anne. By the Act of Union with Scotland (1707) Scottish the Scottish parliament was abolished; but the Repnseata- Scottish peerage were given the privilege of "vePeers- electing, for each parliament of Great Britain, sixteen of their number to represent them in the House of Lords. Further creations in the Scottish peerage were no longer to be made. The effect of this act was to leave the great majority of the Scottish peers outside the House of Lords, as only sixteen of their number were to become lords of parliament. Close upon a hundred years later Ireland was united with Great Britain, the Irish parliament being merged in the Irish Repre- parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain sentative and Ireland. Twenty-eight Irish peers were to be Peers~ elected for life by their order to represent it in the House of Lords. One archbishop and three bishops were also chosen in turn to represent the Irish Church in the House of Lords, but when that Church was disestablished in 1867 the spiritual lords lost their seats. The merger of the three kingdoms had an important effect on their peerages. Every peer in his own country had been a lord of parliament by hereditary right. The English peer (and, as the Acts of Union were passed, the peer of Great Britain and the peer of the United Kingdom) continued by hereditary right a lord of parliament. The Scottish and Irish peers lost this right though by the two Acts of Union they retained every other privilege of peerage. Hence- forth they were lords of parliament only as and when their fellow peers elected them. Thus though not all were lords of parliament in esse, every one was always so in posse, and in any case it was the hereditary quality of the peerage which either actually seated its holder in the House of Lords or made it possible for him to get there by the votes of his fellows. It now becomes possible to arrive at the modern meaning of the term " a peerage," and we may define it as a dignity of England, Scotland or Ireland, which, by its heredi- Modem tary quality, confers on its holder for the time Meaniagot being the right to be or not to be elected a lord of "Peer"**-" parliament. The term " peerage " is also used in a collective sense. The reign of Anne is remarkable for an attempt made by the House of Lords to limit its numbers by law. The queen, in order to secure a majority for the court party, Queen Anne had created a batch of twelve peers at one time, a aadPeerage considerable number in relation to existing peerages; Limitation. and it was feared this expedient might be used as a precedent. A peerage limitation bill was introduced into the House of Lords in 1719. Six new creations were to be allowed, but after these the Crown, except in the case of royal princes, was to create a new peerage only when an old one became extinct. Twenty-five hereditary peerages in Scotland were to take the place of the sixteen representative peers for all time. The bill passed the Lords, but was eventually thrown out in the House of Commons, though not by an overwhelming majority. In 1856 it was desired to strengthen the judicial element in the House of Lords, and the Crown issued letters patent creating Sir James Parke, one of the barons of the exchequer, Baron Wensleydale and a peer " for and during the term of his natural life." The burden of an hereditary peerage is heavy, and many men thoroughly well qualified in legal attainments have been known to refuse it on the ground of expense alone. This life-peerage was thought to be a way out of the difficulty, and it was on Lord Chancellor Cranworth's advice that the Crown issued the Wensleydale patent. The House of Lords at once realized that the creation of life-peers, at the will of the ministry of the day, might put the hereditary section into an absolute minority, and possibly in time, by form of law, get rid of it altogether. Eventually it was decided by the house that " neither the said letters patent nor the said letters patent with the usual writ of summons enable the grantee to sit and vote in parliament," a formal resolution which closed the door in the face of every ey * PEERAGE Judicial Peers. person whom the Crown might endeavour to make a life-peer. The government of the day accepted the situation, and soon afterwards a new patent was made out which followed the usual limitation to heirs-male. The precedents in favour of the Crown's action were not strong. The essential and outstanding attribute of the house was its hereditary character. The whole balance of the constitution worked on the pivot of the indepen- dence of the peers. They existed as a moderating force in the counsels of parliament, and the alteration of the hereditary character of the House of Lords might easily have rendered it amenable to whatever pressure the government of the day might see fit to exercise. In such circumstances its position as arbiter between people and government would tend to dis- appear. A change fraught with so many serious possibilities ought not, it was said, to be made by the simple prerogative of the Crown. If so far-reaching an alteration in the law were justifiable it was for parliament to make it. Further, it was pointed out, there had been no life-creations for centuries, and those that are recorded to have been conferred since the crys- tallization of our parliamentary system were of such a nature that the grantees never sat in the house by virtue of their life- honours, inasmuch as they were existing peers or women. Soon after the Wensleydale debates the government introduced a bill into the House of Lords to authorize the creation of two life-peers, who were to be persons of at least five years' standing as judges. They were to sit as lords of appeal but to be peers for life. Eventually the bill disappeared in the House of Commons. In 1869 Earl Russell introduced another life-peerage bill of far wider scope. Twenty- eight life-peerages might be in existence at any one time, but not more than four were to be created in any one year. The life peers would be lords of parliament for life. They were to be selected by the Crown from the peerages of Scotland and Ireland, persons who had sat for ten years in the Commons, distinguished soldiers, sailors, civil servants and judges or persons distinguished in science, literature or art. The bill received a rough handling in committee of the Lords, and the time was evidently not ripe for change, as the bill failed to pass its third reading. In 1870 attempts were made in the House of Lords to alter the position of the Scottish and Irish representative peers. In Suggested 1876 the need of further judicial strength in the Reforms and Lords was tardily admitted, and an act was passed Alterations, authorizing the creation of two lords of appeal in ordinary, and power was reserved to appoint two more as certain judicial vacancies occurred. They were to be entitled to the rank of baron during their lives but were to sit and vote in parliament only so long as they held their judicial office. Their dignities lasted for life only. Eleven years later another act enabled all retired lords of appeal to sit and vote as members of the House of Lords for life. To those interested in House of Lords reform the pages of Hansard's Parliamen- tary Debates are the best authority. In 1888 reform bills were introduced by Lords Dunraven and Salisbury, and in 1907 by Lord Newton. In December 1908 the publication of a long report with sweeping recommendations for reform ended the labours of a House of Lords committee which had been appointed to consider the question in detail. In the session of 1910, following the general election, long discussions took place in both houses of parliament. Opinion generally was freely expressed that the time had arrived for diminishing the number of lords of parliament and for putting into practice the principle that hereditary right alone should no longer confer lordship of parliament. (See PARLIAMENT.) The Scottish peerage, like that of England, owes its origin to feudalism. In Anglo-Norman days Scotland was a small country, and for some generations after England Peerage was settled tne Scottish king's writ ran little beyond the foot of the Highlands, and even the Lord of the Isles reckoned himself an independent sovereign until the beginning of the isth century. The weak and usually ineffective control of the Crown resulted in opportunities for acquiring personal power which the nobles were not slow to take advantage of. Seldom accustomed to act in concert, they soon developed particularist tendencies which steadily increased the strength of their territorial position. These conditions of existence were entirely unfavourable to the establishment of any system of parliamentary government such as centralization had made possible in England, therefore it is not surprising to find that the lesser barons were not relieved of their attendance at the national assemblies until well on in the isth century (Burton's Scotland, iii. in). Again, when the Scottish earls and barons came to parliament, they did not withdraw themselves from the rest of the people, it being the custom for the estates of Scotland to deliberate together, and this custom persisted until the abolition of their parliament by the Act of Union in 1707. The territorial spirit of the nobles inevitably led them to regard the honour as belonging to, and inseparable from, their land, and until comparatively late in Scottish history there is nowhere any record of the conferment of a personal dignity unattached to land such as that conferred in England on Beauchamp by Richard II. This explains the frequent surrenders and altered grants which are so common in Scottish peerage history, and which, in sharp distinction to the English rule of law, are there regarded as perfectly legal. To-day there exists no Scottish dukedom (except the royal dukedom of Rothesay), marquessate or viscounty created before the reign of James VI. of Scotland (and I. of England). Of the existing Scottish peerages sixty- three were created in the period between James's accession to the English throne and the Act of Union. There are now only eighty-seven in all. Unlike one of the English peerages owing its origin exclusively to a writ of summons, ancient Scottish peerages do not fall into abeyance, and when there are only heirs-general, the eldest heir of line succeeds. Whenever a new parliament is summoned, proclamation is made in Scotland summoning the peers to meet at Holyrood to elect sixteen of their number to represent them in such parliament. The Scottish peerages are recorded on a roll, and this is called over by the lord clerk register before the assembled peers seated at a long table. Each peer answers to the name of the peerage (it may be one or more) he possesses. The roll is then read again and each peer in turn (but only once) rises and reads out the list of those sixteen peers for whom he votes. Proxies are allowed for absent peers and are handed in after the second roll-call. The votes are counted and the lord clerk register reads out the names of those elected, makes a return, and signs and seals it in the presence of the peers assembled. The return eventually finds its way to the House of Lords. The Scottish representative peer so elected receives no writ of summons to parliament, but attends the House of Lords to take the oath, his right to sit being evidenced by the return made. It might be thought that the rules of election in so important a matter would be more stringent, but the fact remains that it is quite possible for an entirely unqualified person to attend and vote at Holyrood. No evidence of identity or of a man's right to be present is required and the lord clerk register is compelled to receive any vote tendered except in respect of peerages for which no vote has been given since 1800, these being struck off the roll (10 & n Viet. c. 52). Any person claiming to represent such a peerage must prove his right before the House of Lords, as was done in the case of the barony of Fairfax in 1908. It is true that by the act last cited any two peers may protest against a vote at Holyrood, and the lord clerk register thereupon reports the proceedings to the House of Lords, who will consider the question if application be made for an inquiry, but nothing is done unless an application is made. The right to vote certainly needs better proof than that now accepted. For many years the House of Lords main- tained that the Crown could not confer a new peerage of Great Britain on a Scottish peer, the ground being that the Scottish peerage was only entitled to the sixteen representative peers given it by the Act of Union, but eventually in 1782 in the case of the duke of Hamilton this contention was given up. The Anglo-Norman conquerors of Ireland carried with them the laws and the system of tenure to which they were accustomed PEERAGE 53 Irish Peerage. in England, and consequently the growth of the baronage and the establishment of parliamentary government in Ireland proceeded on parallel lines with the changes which occurred in England. Until the reign of Henry VIII. the Irish were without representation in par- liament, but gradually the Irish were admitted, and by the creation of new parliamentary counties and boroughs were enabled to elect representatives. In 1613 the whole country shared in representation (Ball's Legislative Systems of Ireland). Just as James I. had added many members to the Scottish peerage, so he increased the number of Irish peers. In 1800 the Union of Great Britain and Ireland abolished the parliament of Ireland. By the Act of Union the Irish peers became entitled to elect twenty-eight of their number to repre- sent them in the House of Lords. The election is for life, and only those peers are entitled to vote at elections of representative peers who have proved their right of succession to the satisfaction of the lord chancellor, who issues his notice to that effect after each individual proof. The names of such peers are added to the voting-roll of the peerage, and when voting papers are distributed — the Irish peers do not meet for election purposes as do those of Scotland — they are sent only to those peers who have proved their right to vote. If any claim to the right to vote is rejected by the lord chancellor the claimant must prove his case before the Committee for Privileges (barony of Graves, 1907). When an Irish peer has been elected a representative peer he receives, as a matter of course, a writ of summons at the beginning of each parliament. The great bulk of the Irish peerage owes its existence to creations during the last two centuries, only seven of the existing peerages dating back beyond the xyth century; of the rest twenty-two were created during the year of Union, and thirty-three have been added since that date. Some hundred or more years ago ministers found the Irish peerage a useful means of political reward, in that it was possible to bestow a title of honour, with all its social prestige, and yet not to increase the numbers of the House of Lords. On the death of a representative peer of Scotland or Ireland a vacancy occurs and a new election takes place, but in accor- dance with modern practice promotion to a United Kingdom peerage does not vacate the holder's representative position (May's Parliamentary Practice, p. n n.). Scottish and Irish peers, if representative, possess all the privileges of peerage and parliament enjoyed by peers of the United Kingdom; if non-representative all privileges of peerage, except the right to a writ of summons to attend parliament and to be present at and vote in the trial of peers. A Scottish peer, if non-representa- tive, is in the anomalous position of being disabled from serving his country in either house of parliament, but an Irish peer may sit for any House of Commons constituency out of Ireland, though while a member of the Commons his peerage privileges abate. Though many peers possess more than one peerage, and frequently of more than one country, only that title is publicly used which is first in poirft of precedence. It was once argued that whenever a barony by writ came into the possession of a person already a peer of higher rank, the higher peerage " at- tracted" or overshadowed the lower, which thenceforth followed the course of descent of the dignity which had attracted it. This doctrine is now exploded and cannot be regarded as apply- ing to any case except that of the Crown (Baronies of Fitzwalter, 1660, and De Ros, 1666; Collins's Claims, 168, 261). Every peerage descends according to the limitations prescribed in its patent of creation or its charter, and where these are non- existent (as in the case of baronies by writ) to heirs-general. (See ABEYANCE.) In dealing with English dignities it is essential to realize the difference between a mere title of honour and a peerage. The Crown as the fountain of honour is capable of conferring upon a subject not only any existing title of honour, but may even invent one for the purpose. So James I. instituted an order of hereditary knights which he termed baronets, and Edward VII. created the duchess of Fife " Princess Royal " — a life dignity. The dignities of prince of Wales, earl marshal and lord great chamberlain have been creation* for centuries hereditary, and though of high court and must be social precedence, of themselves confer no right to according a. seat in the House of Lords — they are not peerages. The grant of a peerage is a very different matter; its holder becomes thereby a member of the Upper House of Parlia- ment, and therefore the prerogative of the Crown in creat- ing such an office of honour must be exercised strictly in accordance with the law of the land. The Crown's prerogative is limited in several directions. The course of descent must be known to the law; and so, in the first place, it follows that a peer cannot be created for life with a denial of succession to his descendants (unless it be as one of the lords of appeal in ordinary under the acts of 1876 and 1887). The courses of descent of modern patents are invariably so marked out as ultimately to fix the peerage in some male line according to the custom of primogeniture, though the immediate successor of the first holder may be a woman or even a stranger in blood. The following instances may be cited; Amabell, Baroness Lucas, was in 1816 created Countess de Grey with a limitation to the heirs-male of her sister; a nephew afterwards succeeded her and the earldom is now held by the marquess of Ripon. Other courses of descent known to the law are as follows: Fee simple, which probably operates as if to heirs-general, earldoms of Oxford (1155) and Norfolk (1135), both probably now in abeyance; and Bedford (1367), extinct; to a second son, the eldest being alive, dukedom of Dover (1708), extinct, and earldom of Cromartie (1861) called out of abeyance in 1895; a son-in-law and his heirs-male by the daughter of the first grantee, earldom of Northumberland (1747) ; to an elder daughter and her heirs-male, earldom of Roberts (1901); to an elder or younger brother and his heirs-male, viscounty of Kitchener (1902) and barony of Grimthorpe (1886). It is, however, not lawful for the Crown to make what is called a shifting limitation to a peerage, i.e. one which might vest a peerage in an individual, and then on a certain event happening (e.g. his succession to a peerage of higher rank) shift it from him to the representative of some other line. Such a limitation was held illegal in the Buckhurst case (1864). A peerage may not be limited to the grantee and " his heirs-male for ever." Such a grant was that of the earldom of Wiltes in 1398. The original grantee died without issue, but left a male heir-at-law, whose descendants in 1869 claimed the earldom, but the original limitation was held invalid. There is no limitation on the power of the Crown as to the number of United Kingdom peerages which may be created. As to Scotland, the Act of Union with that country operates to prevent any increase in the number of Scottish peerages, and consequently there have been no creations since 1707, with the result that the Scottish peerage, as a separate order, is gradually approaching extinction. The Irish peerage is supposed always to consist of one hundred exclusively Irish peers, and the Crown has power to grant Irish peerages up to the limit. When the limit is reached no more peerages may be granted until existing ones become extinct or their holders succeed to United Kingdom peerages. Only four lords of appeal in ordinary may hold office at any one time. The number of archbishops and bishops capable of sitting in the House of Lords is fixed by various statutes at twenty-six, but, as pointed out previously, the spiritual lords are not now regarded as peers. Since party government became the rule, the new peerages have usually been created on the recommendation of the prime minister of the day, though the Crown, especially in considering the claims of royal blood, is believed /v>i«n*ers? in some instances to take its own course; and constitutionally such action is entirely legal. By far the greater number of peerage honours granted during the last two centuries have been rewards for political services. Usually these services are well known, but there exists several instances in which_ the reasons for conferring the honour have not been quite clear. Until the reign of George III. the peerage was 54 PEERAGE comparatively small, but that monarch issued no fewer than 388 patents of peerage. Many of these have become extinct or obscured by higher titles, but the general tendency is in the direction of a steady increase, and where the peers of Tudor times might be counted by tens their successors of 1910 were numbered in hundreds. The full body would be 546 English peers. There are also 12 ladies holding English peerages. The Irish peerage has 175 members, but 82 of these are also peers of the United Kingdom, leaving 28 representative and 65 without seats in the House of Lords. Of 87 Scottish peers 51 hold United Kingdom peerages, the remainder consisting of 16 representative and 20 without seats. As centuries have gone by and customs changed, many privileges once keenly asserted have either dropped out of use or been forgotten. The most important now at Peerage m being are a seat in the House of Lords and the right to trial by peers. The right to a seat in parliament is one sanctioned by centuries of constitutional usage. The right of a peer in England to a seat in parliament was not, as pointed out in the early part of this article, entirely admitted by the Crown until late in the Plantagenet period, the king's pleasure as to whom he should summon always having been a very material factor in the question. Charles I. made a deliberate attempt to recover the ancient discretion of the Crown in the issue of writs of summons. The earl of Bristol was the subject of certain treasonable charges, and though he was never put on his trial the king directed that his writ of summons should not issue. The excluded peer petitioned the Lords, as for a breach of privilege, and a com- mittee to whom the matter was referred reported that there was no instance on record in which a peer capable of sitting in parliament had been refused his writ. There was a little delay, but the king eventually gave in, and the earl had his writ (Lords Journals, iii. 544). At the beginning of a new parliament every peer entitled receives a writ of summons issued under the authority of the Great Seal; he presents his writ at the table of the House of Lords on his first attendance, and before taking the oath. If the peer be newly created he presents his letters-patent creating the peerage to the lord chancellor on the woolsack, together with the writ of summons which the patent has evoked. A peer on succession presents his writ in 'the ordinary way, the Journals recording, e.g. that Thomas Walter, Viscount Hampden, sat first in Parliament after the death of his father (Lords Journals, cxxxix. 4). The form of writ now issued (at the beginning of a parliament: for the variation when parliament is sitting see Lords Journals, cxxxix. 185) corresponds closely to that in use so long ago as the i4th century. It runs as follows: — George the Fifth by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the seas King Defender of the Faith to our right trusty and well- beloved Greeting Whereas by the advice and consent of our Council for certain arduous and urgent affairs concerning us the state and the defence of our said United Kingdom and the Church we have ordered a certain Parliament to be holden at our City of Westminster on the . . . day of ... next ensuing and there to treat and have conference with the prelates great men and peers of our realm We strictly enjoining command you upon the faith and allegiance by which you are bound to us that the weightiness of the said affairs and imminent perils considered (waiving all excuses) you be. at the said day and place personally present with us and with the said prelates great men and peers to treat and give your counsel upon the affairs aforesaid. And this as you regard us and our honour and the safety and defence of the said United Kingdom and_Church and despatch of the said affairs in no wise do you omit. Formerly all peers were required to attend parliament, and there are numerous recorded instances of special grants of leave of absence, but nowadays there is no compulsion. After the right to a summons the principal privilege possessed n. TW j by a peer is his right to be tried by his peers on a rcers l rteu ... , „« . . by Peer*. charge of treason or felony. Whatever the origin of this right, and some writers date it back to Saxon times (Trial of Lord Morley, 1678, State Trials vii. 145), Magna Carta has always been regarded as its con- firmatory authority. The important words are: — " nullus liber homo capiatur imprisonetur aut disseisiatur de libero tenemento suo vel libertatibus seu liberis consuetudinibus suis, aut utlagetur aut exuletur nee aliquo modo distruatur nee dominus rex super ipsum ibit nee super eum mittet nisi per legale judicium parium suorum vel per legem terrae." The peers have always strongly insisted on this privilege of trial by their own order, and several times the heirs of those wrongly condemned recovered their rights and heritage on the ground that there had been no proper trial by peers (R.D.P., v. 24). In 1442 the privilege received parliamentary con- firmation (stat. 20 Henry VI. c. 9). If parliament is sitting the trial takes place before the House of Lords in full session, i.e. the court of our lord the king in parliament, if not then before the court of the lord high steward. The office of lord high steward was formerly hereditary, but has not been so for centuries and is now only granted pro hoc vice. When necessity arises the Crown issues a special commission naming some peer (usually the lord chancellor) lord high steward pro hoc vice (Blackstone's Comm. iv. 258). When a trial takes place in full parliament a lord high steward is also appointed, but his powers there are confined to the presidency of the court, all the peers sitting as judges of law as well as of fact. Should the lord high steward be sitting as a court out of parliament he summons a number of peers to attend as a jury, but rules alone on all points of law and practice, the peers present being judges of fact only. Whichever kind of trial is in progress it is the invariable practice to summon all the judges to attend and advise on points of law. The distinction between the two tribunals was fully discussed and recognized in 1760 (Trial of Earl Ferrers, Foster's Criminal Cases, 139) . The most recent trial was that of Earl Russell for bigamy (reported 1901, A.C. 446). Among others are the Kilmarnock, Cromarty and Balmerino treason trials in parliament in 1746 (State Trials xviii. 441), and in the court of the lord high steward, Lord Morley (treason, 1666, State Trials vi. 777), Lord Cornwallis (murder, 1678 State Trials vii. 145), Lord Delamere (1686, treason, State Trials xi. 510). Recently some doubt has been expressed as to the origin of the court of the lord high steward. It is said that the historical document upon which the practice is founded is a forgery. The conflicting views are set forth in Vernon Harcourt's His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers, p. 429, and in Pike's Constitutional History of the House of Lords, p. 213. In any case, whatever its historical origin, the court for centuries as a matter of fact has received full legal recognition as part of the constitution. The right to trial By peers extends only to cases of treason and felony, and not to those of misdemeanour; nor can it be waived by any peer (Co. 3 Inst. 29; Kelyng's Rep. 56). In the case of R. v. Lord Graves (1887), discussed in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series, vol. cccx. p. 246, Lord Halsbury points out that the question of trial by peers is one of jurisdiction established by law rather than a claim of privilege in the discretion of the accused. Scottish and Irish peers, whether possessing seats in the House of Lords or not, are entitled to trial by peers, the same procedure being followed as in the case of members of the House of Lords. Peers with a seat in the House of Lords possess practically the same parliamentary privileges as do members of the House of Commons. Among other privileges peculiar to themselves they have the right of personal access to the sovereign (Anson's Law of the Constitution, i. 227). In the House of Lords, when a resolution is passed contrary to his sentiments, any peer, by leave of the house, may " protest," that is, enter his dissent on the journals of the house (Blackstone, Comm. i. 162). Formerly a peer might vote by proxy (Blackstone, ibid.), but since 1868 there has been a standing order discontinuing this right. In accordance with resolutions passed by the two houses, neither house has power by any vote or declaration to clothe itself with new privileges unknown to the law and customs of parliament (Commons Journal, xiv. 555). Peeresses and non-representative peers of Ireland and Scotland have, PEERLKAMP— PEESEMSKY 55 with the exception of the right to sit in the House of Lords and its attendant parliamentary privileges, every peerage privilege: a widowed peeress retains her privilege of peerage while un- married, but loses it if she marries a commoner (Co. Litt. 166; Cowley v. Cowley [1901] A.C. 450). Dissolution of marriage probably deprives a peeress of all peerage privileges which she acquired by marriage. The children of peers are commoners. The eldest son of a peer of the rank of earl (and above) is usually known socially by the Position of name °f n's father's next peerage, but the courtesy Families of nature °f such title is clearly indicated in every public Peers or 'eSa' document, the phraseology employed being " John Smith, Esq., commonly known as Viscount Blackacre." Several cases are on record in which peers' eldest sons have actually borne courtesy titles not possessed as peerage honours by their fathers, but inasmuch as such are only accorded by courtesy, no question of peerage privilege arises. The yoifnger sons of dukes and marquesses are entitled to the prefix Lord " before their Christian names, and all the daughters of earls as well as of dukes and marquesses are entitled similarly to style them- selves " Lady," on the principle that all the daughters are equal in rank and precedence. The younger sons of earls and all the younger children of viscounts and barons are entitled to the prefix Honourable." Usually when the direct heir of a peer dies his children are given, by the Crown, on the death of the peer, the courtesy titles and precedence they would have enjoyed had their father actually succeeded to the peerage. An alien may be created a peer, but while remaining an alien cannot sit in the House of Lords, nor, if a Scottish or Irish peer, can he vote at elections for representative peers. Peer- 01 ages may be created (l) by writ of summons, (2) by Peerages, patent. The writ of summons method is not now used except in the case of calling up an eldest son in the barony of his father. This does not create a new peerage but only accelerates the heir's appearance in the House of Lords. On the father's death the peerage remains vested in the son. Should the son die without heir the peerage revests in the father. The invariable method of creation in all ordinary cases is by patent. The letters patent describe the name of the dignity, the person upon whom it is conferred, and specify its course of descent. Claims to peerages are of two kinds: (l) of right, (2) of grace. In theory the Crown, as the fountain of honour, might settle any claim without reference to the House of Lords and * ° issue a writ of summons to its petitioner. This would Peerages. not m any way prevent the House of Lords from examining the patent and writ of summons when the favoured petitioner or any heir claiming through him came to take his seat. If of opinion that the patent was illegal the house might refuse admittance, as it did in the Wensleydale case. In the case of a petitioner who has persuaded the Crown to terminate in his favour as a co-heir the abeyance of an ancient barony and who has received his writ of summons, the matter is more difficult. The house cannot refuse to admit any person properly summoned by the Crown, as the prerogative is unlimited in point of numbers; but it can take into account the precedence of the newcomer. If he has an old barony he naturally expects its proper place on the bench of barons; but if the house thought fit they might compel him to prove his pedigree before according any precedence. If he refused to do this they would still be bound to admit him, but it would be as the junior baron of the house with a peerage dating, for parliamentary purposes, from the day of his summons. The general result is that the Crown, unless there can be no question as to pedigree, seldom terminates an abeyance without referring the matter to the House of Lords, and invariably so refers all claims which are disputed or which involve any question of law.1 The procedure is as follows: The claimant petitions the Crown through the home secretary, setting forth his pedigree and stating the nature of his claim. The Crown then refers the petition to its legal adviser, the attorney-general. The petitioner then in course of time appears before the attorney-general with his proofs. Finally the attorney-general reports that a prima facie case is, or is not, made out. If a case be made out, the Crown, if it does not take immediate action, refers the whole matter to the House of Lords, who pass it on to their Committee for Privileges for examination and report. The Committee for Privileges, which for peerage claims is usually constituted of the law lords and one or two other lords interested Committee m peerage history, sits as an ordinary court of justice forPrlvl- an° follows all the rules of law and evidence. The leges. attorney-general attends as adviser to the committee and to watch the interests of the Crown. According to the nature of the case the Committee reports to the house, and the house to the Crown, that the petitioner (if successful) (l) has made out his claim and is entitled to a writ of summons, or (2) 1 This was not done in the case of the earldom of Cromartie called out of abeyance in 1895. The holder of the title being a lady the house has had, as yet, no opportunity of considering the validity of the Crown's action. has proved his co-heirship to an existing peerage, and has also proved the descent of all existing co-heirs. In the first case the writ of summons is issued forthwith, but the second, being one of abeyance, is a matter for the pleasure of the Crown, which need not be exercised at all, but, if exercised, may terminate the abeyance in favour of any one of the co-heirs. The seniority of a co-heir (though this alone is of little moment), his power to support the dignity, and the number of existing co-heirs, are all factors which count in the chances of success. Reference has already been made in the earlier part of this article to the reply of Bishop Peter de Roches to the English barons who claimed trial by their peers, and, as was suggested Peers ol the bishop probably had in his mind the peers of France. France Possibly the word pares, as eventually used in England, was borrowed from this source, but this is uncertain. The great men known originally as the twelve pairs de France, were the feudal holders of large territories under the nominal sway of the king of France. They were the (archbishop) duke of Rheims, the (bishop) dukes of Langres and Laon, the (bishop) counts of Beauvais, Noyon and Chalons, the dukes of Burgundy, Normandy and Aquitaine, and the counts of Flanders, Toulouse and Champagne. These magnates, nominally feudatories, were practically independent rulers, and their position can in no way be compared to that of the English baronage. It is said that this body of peers was in- stituted in the reign of Philip Augustus, though some writers even ascribe its origin to Charlemagne. Some of the peers were present at Philip's coronation in 1179, and later again at the alleged trial of John of England when his fief of Normandy, was adjudged forfeit to the French Crown. As the central power of the French kings grew, the various fiefs lost their independence and became united to the Crown, with the exception of Flanders which passed into the hands of the emperor Charles V. In the I4th century the custom arose for the sovereign to honour his more important nobles by granting them the title of Peer of France. At first the grant was confined to the royal dukes, but later it was conferred on others, amongst whom late in the 1 7th century appears the archbishop of Paris. To several counties and baronies the honour of a peerage was added, but most of these eventually became reunited with the Crown. As a legislative body a chamber of peers in France was first founded by Louis XVIII. in 1814; it was hereditary anrt modelled on the English House of Lords. The revolution of 1830 reduced its hereditary quality to life tenure, and in the troubles of 1848 the chamber itself finally disappeared. Austria, Hungary and Portugal are other countries possessing peerages which to some extent follow the English model , In Austria there is a large hereditary nobility and those other members of it in whose families the legislative dignity Peerages is hereditary by nomination of the emperor sit in the Herrenhaus or Austrian Upper Chamber, together with certain pre- lates and a large number of nominated life-members. In Hungary all those nobles who possess the right of hereditary peerage (as admitted by the act of 1885 and subsequent acts) and who pay a land tax of certain value, are members of the House of Magnates, of which they form a large majority, the remainder of the mem- bers being Roman Catholic prelates, representatives of Protestant churches and life peers. In Portugal until recent years the House of Peers was an hereditary body,, but it is now practically a chamber of life-peers. (G. E.) PEERLKAMP, PETRUS HOFMAN (1786-1865), Dutch classical scholar and critic, descended from a family of French refugees named Perlechamp, was born at Groningen on the and of February 1786. He was professor of ancient literature and universal history at Leiden from 1822 to 1849, when he resigned his post and retired to Hilversum near Utrecht, where he died on the 27th of March 1865. He was the founder of the subjective method of textual criticism, which consisted in rejecting in a classical author whatever failed to come up to the standard of what that author, in the critic's opinion, ought to have written. His ingenuity in this direction, in which he went much farther than Bentley, was chiefly exercised on the Odes of Horace (the greater part of which he declared spurious), and the Aeneid of Virgil. He also edited the Ars poetica and Satires of Horace, the Agricola of Tacitus, the romance of Xenophon of Ephesus, and was the author of a history of the Latin poets of the Netherlands (De vita, doctrina, et facilitate N ederlandorum qui carmina latino, composuerunt, 1838). See L. M tiller, Gesch. der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden (1869), and J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. (1908), iii. 276. PEESEMSKY, ALEXEY FEOFILACTOVICH (1820-1881), Russian novelist, was born on his father's estate, in the province of Kostroma, on the ioth/22nd of March 1820. In his auto- biography he describes his family as belonging to the ancient PEGASUS— PEGMATITE Russian nobility, but his more immediate progenitors were all very poor, and unable to read or write. His grandfather ploughed the fields as a simple peasant, and his father, as Peesemsky himself said, was washed and clothed by a rich relative, and placed as a soldier in the army, from which he retired as a major after thirty years' service. During childhood Peesemsky read eagerly the translated works of Walter Scott and Victor Hugo, and later those of Shakespeare, Schiller, Goethe, Rousseau, Voltaire and George Sand. From the gymnasium of Kostroma he passed through Moscow University, and in 1884 entered the government service as a clerk in the office of the Crown domains in his native province. Between 1854 and 1872, when he finally quitted the civil service, he occupied similar posts in St Petersburg and Moscow. His early works exhibit a profound disbelief in the higher qualities of humanity, and a disdain for the other sex, although he appears to have been attached to a particularly devoted and sensible wife. His first novel, Boyarstchina, was forbidden for its unflattering description of the Russian nobility. His principal novels are Tufak ("A Muff"), 1850; Teesicha doush ("A Thousand Souls "), 1862, which is considered his best work of the kind; and Vzbalomoucheneoe more (" A Troubled Sea "), giving a picture of the excited state of Russian society about the year 1862. He also produced a comedy, Gorkaya soudbina (" A Bitter Fate "), depicting the dark sides of the Russian peasantry, which obtained for him the Ouvaroff prize of the Russian Academy. In 1856 he was sent, together with other literary men, to report on the ethnographical and commercial condition of the Russian interior, his particular field of inquiry having been Astrakhan and the region of the Caspian Sea. His scepticism in regard to the liberal reforms of the 'sixties made him very unpopular among the more progressive writers of that time. He died at Moscow on the 2nd of February 1881 (Jan. 21, Russian style). PEGASUS (from Gr. Tnjybs, compact, strong), the famous winged horse of Greek fable, said to have sprung from the trunk of the Gorgon Medusa when her head was cut off by Perseus. Belleropbon caught him as he drank of the spring Peirene on the Acrocorinthus at Corinth, or received him tamed and bridled at the hands of Athena (Pindar, 01. xiii. 63; Pausanias ii. 4). Mounted on Pegasus, Bellerophon slew the Chimaera and overcame the Solymi and the Amazons, but when he tried to fly to heaven on the horse's back he threw him and continued his heavenward course (Apollodorus ii. 3). Arrived in heaven, Pegasus served Zeus, fetching for him his thunder and lightning (Hesiod, Theog. 281). Hence some have thought that Pegasus is a symbol of the thundercloud. According to O. Gruppe (Griechische Mythologie, i. 75, r23) Pegasus, like Arion the fabled offspring of Demeter and Poseidon, was a curse-horse, symbolical of the rapidity with which curses were fulfilled. In later legend he is the horse of Eos, the morning. The erroneous derivation from 70^17, " a spring of water," may have given birth to the legends which connect Pegasus with water; e.g. that his father was Poseidon, that he was born at the springs of Ocean, and that he had the power of making springs rise from the ground by a blow of his hoof. When Mt Helicon, enchanted by the song of the Muses, began to rise to heaven, Pegasus stopped its ascent by stamping on the ground (Antoninus Liberalis 9), and where he struck the earth Hippocrene (horse- spring), the fountain of the Muses, gushed forth (Pausanias ii. 31, ix. 31). But there are facts that speak for an independent mythological connexion between horses and water, e.g. the sacredness of the horse to Poseidon, the epithets Hippios and Equester applied to Poseidon and Neptune, the Greek fable of the origin of the first horse (produced by Poseidon striking the ground with his trident), and the custom in Argolis of sacrificing horses to Poseidon by drowning them in a well. From his connexion with Hippocrene Pegasus has come to be regarded as the horse of the Muses and hence as a symbol of poetry. But this is a modern attribute of Pegasus, not known to the ancients, and dating only from the Orlando innamorato of Boiardo. See monograph by F. Hannig, Breslauer philologische Abhand- lungen (1902), vol. viii., pt. 4. PEGAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, situated in a fertile country, on the Elster, 18 m. S.W. from Leipzig by the railway to Zeitz. Pop. (1905), 5656. It has two Evangelical churches, that of St Lawrence being a fine Gothic structure, a 16th-century town-hall; a very old hospital and an agricultural school. Its industries embrace the manu- facture of felt, boots and metal wares. Pegau grew up round a monastery founded in 1096, but does not appear as a town before the close of the I2th century. Markets were held here and its prosperity was further enhanced by its position on a main road running east and west. In the monastery, which was dissolved in 1539, a valuable chronicle was compiled, the Annales pegatiienses, covering the period from 1039 to 1227. See Filssel, Anfang und Ende des Klosters St Jacob zu Pegau (Leipzig, 1857) ; and Dillner, Grossel and Gunther, Altes und neues aus Pegau (Leipzig, 1905). The Annales pegavienses are published in Bd. XVI. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores. PEGMATITE (from Gr. Tnjyua, a bond), the name given by Haiiy to those masses of graphic granite which frequently occur in veins. They consist of quartz and alkali feldspars in crystalline intergrowth (see PETROLOGY, Plate II. fig. 6). The term was subsequently used by Naumann to signify also the coarsely crystalline veins rich in quartz, feldspar and muscovite, which often in great numbers ramify through outcrops of granite and the surrounding locks. This application of the name has now obtained general acceptance, and has been extended by many authors to include vein-rocks of similar structure and geological relationships, which occur with syenites, diorites and gabbros. Only a few of these pegmatites have graphic structure or mutual intergrowth of their constituents. Many of them are exceedingly coarse-grained; in granite-pegmatites the feldspars may be several feet or even yards in diameter, and other minerals such as apatite and tourmaline often occur in gigantic crystals. Peg- matites consist of minerals which are found also in the rocks from which they are derived, e.g. granite-pegmatites contain principally quartz and feldspar while gabbro-pegmatites consist of diallage and plagioclase. Rare minerals, however, often occur in these veins in exceptional amount and as very perfect crystals. The minerals of the pegmatites are always those which were last to separate out from the parent rock. As the basic minerals are the first formed the pegmatites contain a larger proportion of the acid or more siliceous components which were of later origin. In granite-pegmatites there is little hornblende, biotite or sphene, but white mica, feldspar and quartz make up the greater part of the veins. In gabbro-pegmatites olivine seldom occurs, but diallage and plagioclase occur in abundance. In this respect the pegmatites and aplites agree; both are of more acid types than the average rock from which they came, but the pegmatites are coarsely crystalline while the aplites are fine-grained. Segregations of the early minerals of a rock are frequent as nodules, lumps and streaks scattered through its mass, and often dikes of basic character (lampro- phyres, &c.) are injected into the surrounding country. These have been grouped together as intrusions of melanocrate facies (/wXaj, black, Kp&ros, strength, predominance) because in them the dark basic minerals preponderate. The aplites and pegmatites, on the other hand, are leucocrate (Xew6s, white), since they are of acid character and contain relatively large amounts of the white minerals quartz and feldspar. Pegmatites are associated with plutonic or intrusive rocks and were evidently formed by slow crystallization at considerable depths below the surface: nothing similar to them is known in lavas. They are very characteristic of granites, especially those which contain muscovite and much alkali feldspar; in gabbros, diorites and syenites piegmatite dikes are comparatively rare. The coarsely crystalline structure may be ascribed to slow crystallization; and is partly the result of the rocks, in which the veins lie, having been at a high temperature when the minerals of the pegmatites separated out. In accordance with this we find that pegmatite veins are nearly always restricted PEGNITZ— PEGOLOTTI 57 to the area occupied by the parent rock (e.g. the granite), or to its immediate vicinity, and within the zone which has been greatly heated by the plutonic intrusion, viz. the contact aureole. Another very important factor in producing the coarse crystal- lization of the pegmatite veins is the presence of abundant water vapour and other gases which served as mineralizing agents and facilitated the building together of the rock molecules in large crystalline individuals. Proof that these vapours were important agents in the forma- tion of pegmatites is afforded by many of the minerals con- tained in the veins. Boron, fluorine, hydrogen, chlorine and other volatile substances are essential components of some of these minerals. Thus tourmaline, which contains boron and fluorine, may be common in the pegmatites but rare in the granite itself. Fluorine or chlorine are present in apatite, another frequent ingredient of granite pegmatites. Muscovite and gilbertite both contain hydrogen and fluorine; topaz is rich in fluorine also and all of these are abundant in some pegmatites. The stimulating effect which volatile substances exert on crystallizing molten masses is well known to experi- mental geologists who, by mixing tungstates and fluorides with fused powders, have been able to produce artificial minerals which they could not otherwise obtain. Most pegmatites are truly igneous rocks so far as their composition goes, but in their structure they show relations to the aqueous mineral veins. Many of them for example have a comby structure, that is to say, their minerals are columnar and stand perpendicular to the walls of the fissure occupied by the vein. Sometimes they have a banding owing to successive deposits having been laid down of different character; mica may be external, then feldspar, and in the centre a leader or string of pure quartz. In pegmatite veins also there are very frequently cavities or vugs, which are lined by crystals with very perfect faces. These bear much resemblance to the miarolitic or drusy cavities common in granite, and like them were probably filled with the residual liquid which was left over after the mineral substances were deposited in crystals. Pegmatites are very irregular not only in distribution, width and persistence, but also in composition. The relative abun- dance of the constituent minerals may differ rapidly and much from point to point. Sometimes they are rich in mica, in enormous crystals for which the rock is mined or quarried (India). Other pegmatites are nearly pure feldspar, while others are locally (especially near their terminations) very full of quartz. They may in fact pass into quartz veins (alaskites) some of which are auriferous (N. America). Quartz veins of another type are very largely developed, especially in regions of slate and phyllite; they are produced by segregation of dissolved silica from the country rock and its concentration into cracks produced by stretching of the rock masses during folding. In these segregation veins, especially when the beds are of feldspathic nature, crystals of albite and orthoclase may appear, in large or small quantity. In this v/ay a second type of pegmatite (segregation pegmatite) is formed which is very difficult to distinguish from true igneous veins. These two have, however, much in common as regards the conditions under which they were formed. Great pressures, presence of water, and a high though not necessarily very high temperature were the principal agencies at work. Granite pegmatites are laid down after their parent mass had solidified and while it was cooling down: sometimes they contain such minerals as garnet, not found in the main mass, and showing that the temperature of crystallization was comparatively low. Another special feature of these veins is the presence of minerals containing precious metals or rare earths. Gold occurs in not a few cases; tin in others, while sulphides such as copper pyrites are found also. Beryl is the commonest of the minerals of the second group : spodumene is another example, and there is much reason to hold that diamond is a native of some of the pegmatites of Brazil and India, though this is not yet incontestably proved. The syenite- pegmatites of south Norway are remarkable both for their coarse crystallization and for the great number of rare rfiinerals they have yielded. Among these may be mentioned laavenite, rinkite, rosen- buschite, mosandrite, pyrochlore, perofskite and lamprophyllite. Dpnyllite (J. S. F. PEGNITZ, a river of Germany. It rises near Lindenhard in Upper Franconia (Bavaria) from two sources. At first it is called the Fichtenohe, but at Buchau it takes the name of the Pegnitz, and flowing in a south-westerly direction disappears below the small town of Pegnitz in a mountain cavern. It emerges through three orifices, enters Middle Franconia, and after flowing through the heart of the city of Nuremberg falls into the Regnitz at Furth. See Specht, Das Pegnitzgebiet in Bezug auf seinen Wasserhaushalt (Munich, 1905). The Pegnitz Order (Order of the society of Pegnitz shepherds), also known as " the crowned flower order on the Pegnitz," was one of the societies founded in Germany in the course of the I7th century for the purification and improvement of the German language, especially in the domain of poetry. Georg Philipp Harsdorffer and Johann Klaj instituted the order in Nuremberg in 1644, and named it after the river. Its emblem was the passion flower with Pan's pipes, and the motto Mil Nutzen erfreulich, or Alle zu einem Ton einslimmig. The members set themselves the task of counteracting the pedantry of another school of poetry by imagination and gaiety, but lacking imagination and broad views they took refuge in allegorical subjects and puerile trifling. The result was to debase rather than to raise the standard of poetic art in Germany. At first the meetings of the order were held in private grounds, but in 1681 they were transferred to a forest near Kraftshof or Naunhof. In 1794 the order was reorganized, and it now exists merely as a literary society. See Tittman, Die niirnberger Dichterschule (Gottingen, 1847); and the Festschrift zur 2$o-jahrigen Jubelfeier des pegnesischen Blumenordens (Nuremberg, 1894). PEGOLOTTI, FRANCESCO BALDUCCI (fl. 1315-1340), Florentine merchant and writer, was a factor in the service of the mercantile house of the Bardi, and in this capacity we find him at Antwerp from 1315 (or earlier) to 1317; in London in 1317 and apparently for some time after; in Cyprus from 1324 to 1327, and again (or perhaps in unbroken continuation of his former residence) in 1335. In this last year he obtained from the king of Little Armenia (i.e. medieval Cilicia, &c.) a grant of privileges for Florentine trade. Between 1335 and 1343, probably in 1339-1340, he compiled his Libra di divisamenti di paesi e di misuri di mercalanzie e d'altre cose bisognevoli di sapere a' mercatanti, commonly known as the Pratica delta mercatura (the name given it by Pagnini). Beginning with a sort of glossary of foreign terms then in use for all kinds of taxes or payments on merchandise as well as for " every kind of place where goods might be bought or sold in cities," the Pralica next describes some of the chief trade routes of the i4th century, and many of the principal markets then known to Italian merchants; the imports and exports of various important commercial regions; the business customs prevalent in each of those regions; and the comparative value of the leading moneys, weights and measures. The most distant and extensive trade routes described by Pegolotti are: (i) that from Tana or Azov to Peking via Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar, Kulja and Kanchow (Gittarchan, Organci, Ottrarre, Armalecco and Camexu in the Pratica); (2) that from Lajazzo on the Cilician coast to Tabriz in north Persia via Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum (Salvastro, Arzinga and Arzerone); (3) that from Trebizond to Tabriz. Among the markets enumerated are: Tana, Constantinople, Alexandria, Damietta, and the ports of Cyprus and the Crimea. Pegolotti's notices of ports on the north of the Black Sea are very valuable; his works show us that Florentine exports had now gained a high reputation in the Levant. In other chapters an account is given of 14th-century methods of packing goods (ch. 29); of assaying gold and silver (ch. 35); of shipment; of "London in England in itself" (ch. 62); of monasteries in Scotland and England (" Scotland of England," Scozia di Inghilterra) that were rich in wool (ch. 63). Among the latter are Newbattle, Balmerino, Cupar, Dunfermline, Dundrennan, Glenluce, Coldingham, Kelso, Newminster near Morpeth, Furness, Fountains, Kirkstall, Kirstead, Swineshead, Sawley PEGU— PEIRCE and Calder. Pegolotti's interest in England and Scotland is chiefly connected with the wool trade. There is only one MS. of the Pratica, viz. No. 2441 in the Riccar- dian Library at Florence (241 fob., occupying the whole volume), written in 1471 ; and one edition of the text, in vol. iii. of Gian Francesco Pagnini's Delia Decima e delle altre gravezze impaste dal commune di Firenze (Lisbon and Lucca — really Florence— -1766) ; Sir Henry Yule, Cathay, ii. 279-308, translated into English the most interesting sections of Pegolotti, with valuable commentary (London, Hakluyt Society, 1866). See also W. Heyd, Commerce du Levant, ii., 12, 50, 58, 78-79, 85-86, 112-119 (Leipzig, 1886); H. Kiepert, in Silzungsberichte der philos.-hist. Cl. der berliner Akad., p. 901, &c. (Berlin, 1881); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 324-332, 550, 555 (Oxford, 1906). PEGU, a town and former capital of Lower Burma, giving its name to a district and a division. The town is situated on a river of the same name, 47 m. N.E. of Rangoon by rail; pop. (1901), 14,132. It is still surrounded by the old walls, about 40 ft. wide, on which have been built the residences of the British officials. The most conspicuous object is the Shwe- maw-daw pagoda, 324 ft. high, considerably larger and even more holy than the Shwe-dagon pagoda at Rangoon. Pegu is said to have been founded in 573, as the first capital of the Takings; but it was as the capital of the Toungoo dynasty that it became known to Europeans in the i6th century. About the middle of the i8th century it was destroyed by Alompra; but it rose again, and was important enough to be the scene of fighting in both the first and second Burmese Wars. It gave its name to the province (including Rangoon) which was annexed by the British in 1852. The district, which was formed in 1883, consists of an alluvial tract between the Pegu Yoma range and the Sittang river: area, 4276 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 339,572, showing an increase of 43% in the decade. Christians numbered nearly 9000, mostly Karens. Almost the only crop grown is rice, which is exported in large quantities to Rangoon. The district is traversed by the railway, and also crossed by the Pegu-Sittang canal, navi- gable for 85 m., with locks. The division of Pegu comprises the five districts of Rangoon city, Hanthawaddy, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Prome, lying east of the Irrawaddy: area 13,084 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,820,638. Pegu has also given its name to the Pegu Yoma, a range of hills running north and south for about 200 m., between the Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers. The height nowhere exceeds 2000 ft. but the slopes are steep and rugged. The forests yield teak and other valuable timber. The Pegu river, which rises in this range, falls into the Rangoon river just below Rangoon city, after a course of about 180 m. PEILE, JOHN (1838-1910), English philologist, was born at Whitehaven on the 24th of April 1838. He" was educated at Repton and Christ's College, Cambridge. After a distinguished career (Craven scholar, senior classic and chancellor's medallist), he became fellow and tutor of his college, reader of comparative philology in the university (1884-1891), and in 1887 was elected master of Christ's. He took a great interest in the higher education of women and became president of Newnham College. He was the first to introduce the great philological works of George Curtius and Wilhelm Corssen to the English student in his Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology (1869). He died at Cambridge on the Qth of October 1910, leaving practically completed his exhaustive history of Christ's College. PEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, 16 m. by rail N.W. of Brunswick, on the railway to Hanover and Hamburg. Pop. (1905), 15,421. The town has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several schools. Its industries include iron and steel works, breweries, distilleries and brickyards, and the manufacture of starch, sugar, malt, machinery and artificial manure. There are also large horse and cattle markets held here. Peine was at one time a strongly fortified place, and until 1803 belonged to the bishopric of Hildesheim. PEINE FORTE ET DURE (French for "hard and severe punishment "), the term for a barbarous torture inflicted on those who, arraigned of felony, refused to plead and stood silent, or challenged more than twenty jurors, which was deemed a con- tumacy equivalent to a refusal to plead. By early English law a prisoner, before he could be tried, must plead " guilty " or " not guilty." Before the i3th century it was usual to imprison and starve till submission, but in Henry IV. 's reign the peine was employed. The prisoner was stretched on his back, and stone or iron weights were placed on him till he either submitted or was pressed to death. Pressing to death was abolished in 1772; " standing mute " on an arraignment of felony being then made equivalent to conviction. By an act of 1828 a plea of " not guilty " was to be entered against any prisoner refusing to plead, and that is the rule to-day. An alternative to the peine was the tying of the thumbs tightly together with whip- cord until pain forced the prisoner to speak. This was said to be a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the igth century. Among recorded instances of the' infliction of the peine are: Juliana Quick (1442) for high treason in speaking derisively of Henry VI.; Margaret Clitherow, "the martyr of York" (1586); Walter Calverly, of Calverly, Yorks, for the murder of his children (1605); and Major Strangways at Newgate, charged with murder of his brother-in-law (1657). In this last case it is said that upon the weights being placed in position several cavalier friends of Strang- ways sprang on his body and put him out of his pain. In 1721 one Nathaniel Hawes lay under a weight of 250 Ib for seven minutes, finally submitting. The peine was last employed in 1741 at Cambridge assizes, when a prisoner was so put to death ; the penalty of thumb-tying having first been tried. In 1692 at Salem, Massa- chusetts, Giles Corey, accused of witchcraft, refusing to plead, was pressed to death. This is believed to be the only instance of the infliction of the penalty in America. PEIPUS, or CHUDSKOYE OZERO, a lake of north-west Russia, between the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov, Livonia and Esthonia. Including its southern extension, sometimes known as Lake Pskov, it has an area of 1356 sq. m. Its shores are flat and sandy, and in part wooded; its waters deep, and they afford valuable fishing. The lake is fed by the Velikaya, which enters it at its southern extremity, and by the Embach, which flows in half way up its western shore; it drains into the Gulf of Finland by the Narova, which issues at its north-east corner. PEIRAEUS, or PIRAEUS (Gr. Ueipaievs), the port town of Athens, with which its history is inseparably connected. Pop. (1907), 67,982. It consists of a rocky promontory, contain- ing three natural harbours, a large one on the north-west which is still one of the chief commercial harbours of the Levant, and two smaller ones on the east, which were used chiefly for naval purposes. Themistocles was the first to urge the Athenians to take advantage of these harbours, instead of using the sandy bay of Phaleron ; and the fortification of the Peiraeus was begun in 493 B.C. Later on it was connected with Athens by the Long Walls in 460 B.C. The town of Peiraeus was laid out by the architect Hippodamus of Miletus, probably in the time of Pericles. The promontory itself consisted of two parts — the hill of Munychia, and the projection of Acte; on the opposite side of the great harbour was the outwork of Eetioneia. The most stirring episode in the history of the Peiraeus is the seizure of Munychia by Thrasybulus and the exiles from Phyle, and the consequent destruction of the " 30 tyrants " in 404 B.C. The three chief arsenals of the Peiraeus were named Munychia, Zea and Cantharus, and they contained galley slips for 82, 196 and 94 ships respectively in the 4th century B.C. See under ATHENS. Also Angelopoulos, Hepl UtipatSis «d wrote a poem on the mixed marriages of gods and mortals, after the manner of the Eoiai of Hesiod. See fragments in G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenta (1878) ; also F. G. Welcker, Kleine Schriften, vol. i. (1844), on the twelve labours of Hercules in Peisander. PEISISTRATUS, (6057-527 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was the son of Hippocrates. He was named after Peisistratus, the youngest son of Nestor, the alleged ancestor of his family; he was second cousin on his mother's side to Solon, and numbered among his ancestors Codrus the last great king of Athens. Thus among those who became " tyrants " in the Greek world he gained his position as one of the old nobility, like Phalaris of Agrigentum, and Lygdamis of Naxos; but unlike Orthagoras of Sicyon, who had previously been a cook. Peisistratus, though Solon's junior by thirty years, was his lifelong friend (though this is denied), nor did their friendship suffer owing to their political antagonism. From this widely accepted belief arose the almost certainly false statement that Peisistratus took part in Solon's successful war against Megara, which necessarily took place before Solon's archonship (probably in 600 B.C.). Aristotle's Constitution of Athens (ch. 17) carefully distinguishes Solon's Megarian War from a second in which Peisistratus was no doubt in command, undertaken between 570 and 565 to recapture Nisaea (the port of Megara) which had apparently been recovered by the Megarians since Solon's victory (see Sandys on The Constitution of Athens, ch. 14, i, note, and E. Abbott, History of Greece, vol. i. app. p. 544). Whatever be the true explanation of this problem, it is certain (i) that Peisistratus was regarded as a leading soldier, and (2) that his position was strengthened by the prestige of his family. Furthermore (3) he was a man of great ambition, persuasive eloquence and wide generosity; qualities which especially appealed at that time to the classes from whom he was to draw his support — hence the warning of Solon (Frag. II. B) : " Fools, you are treading in the footsteps of the fox; can you not read the hidden meaning of these charm- ing words?" Lastly, (4) and most important, the times were ripe for revolution. In the article on SOLON (ad fin.) it is shown that the Solonian reforms, though they made a great advance in some directions, failed on the whole. They were too moderate to please the people, too democratic for the nobles. It was found that the government by Boule and Ecclesia did not mean popular control in the full sense; it meant government by the leisured classes, inasmuch as the industrious farmer or herdsman could not leave his work to give his vote at the Ecclesia, or do his duty as a councillor. Partly owing to this, and partly to ancient feuds whose origin we cannot trace, the Athenian people was split up into three great factions known as the Plain (Pedieis) led by Lycurgus and Miltiades, both of noble families; the Shore (Par alt) led by the Alcmaeonidae, represented at this time by Megacles, who was strong in his wealth and by his recent marriage with Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon; the Hill or Upland (Diacreis, Diacrii) led by Peisistratus, who no doubt owed his influence among these hillmen partly to the possession of large estates at Marathon. In the two former divisions the influence of wealth and birth predominated; the hillmen were poorly housed, poorly clad and unable to make use of the privileges which Solon had given them.1 Hence their attachment to Peisistratus, the " man of the people," who called upon them to sweep away the last barriers which separated rich and poor, nobles and commoners, city and countryside. Lastly, there was a class of men who were discontented with the Solonian constitution: some had lost by his Seisachtheia, others had vainly hoped for a general redistribution. These men saw their only hope in a revolution. Such were the factors which enabled him to found his tyranny. To enter here into an exhaustive account of the various theories which even before, though especially after, the appearance of the Constitution of Athens have been propounded as to the chronology of the Peisistratean tyranny, is impossible. For a summary of these hypotheses see J. E. Sandys's edition of the Constitution of Athens (p. 56, c. 14 note). The following is in brief the sequence of events: In 560 B.C. Peisistratus drove into the market-place, showed to an indignant assembly marks of violence on himself and his mules, and claimed to be the victim of assault at the hands of political enemies. The people unhesitatingly awarded their " champion " a bodyguard of fifty men (afterwards four hundred) armed with clubs. With this force he proceeded to make himself master of the Acropolis and tyrant of Athens. The Alcmaeonids fled and Peisistratus remained in power for about five years, during which Solon's death occurred. In 555 or 554 B.C. a coalition of the Plain and the Coast succeeded in expelling him. His property was confiscated and sold by auction, but in his absence the strife between the Plain and the Coast was renewed, and Megacles, unable to hold his own, invited him to return. The condition was that their families should be allied by the marriage of Peisistratus to Megacles' daughter Coesyra. A second coup d'etat was then effected. A beautiful woman, it is said, by name Phya, was disguised as Athena and drove into the Agora with Peisistratus at her side, while proclamations were made that the goddess herself was restoring Peisistratus to Athens. The ruse was successful, but Peisistratus soon quarrelled with Megacles over Coesyra. By a former marriage he already had two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, now growing up, and in his first tyranny or his first exile he married an Argive, Timonassa, by whom he had two other sons lophon and Hegesistratus, the latter of whom is said to be identical with Thessalus (Ath. Pol. c. 17), though from Thucydides and Herodotus we gather that they were distinct — e.g. Herodotus describes Hegesistratus as a bastard, and Thucydides says that Thessalus was legitimate. Further it is suggested that Peisistratus was unwilling to have children by one on whom lay the curse of the Cylonian outrage. The result was that in the seventh year (or month, see Ath. Pol. c. 15. i, Sandys's note) Megacles accused him of neglecting his daughter, combined once more with the third faction, and drove the tyrant into an exile lasting apparently for ten or eleven years. During this period he lived first at Rhaecelus and later near Mt Pangaeus and on the Strymon collecting resources of men and money. He came finally to Eretria, and, with the help of the Thebans and Lygdamis of Naxos, whom he afterwards made ruler of that island, he passed over to Attica and defeated the Athenian forces at the battle of Pallenis or Pellene. From this time till his death he remained undisputed master of Athens. The Alcmaeonids were compelled to leave Athens, and from 1 It is suggested with probability that the Diacrii were rather the miners of the Laurium district (P. M. Ure, Journ. Hell. Stud., 1906, pp. 131-142). 6o PEKIN the other noble families which remained he exacted 400 hostages whom he put in the care of his ally Lygdamis. In the heyday of the Athenian democracy, citizens both conservative and progressive, politicians, philosophers and historians were unanimous in their denunciation of " tyranny." Yet there is no doubt that the rule of Peisistratus was most beneficial to Athens both in her foreign and in her internal relations, (i) During his enforced absence from Athens he had evidently acquired a far more extended idea of the future of Athens than had hitherto dawned on the somewhat parochial minds of her leaders. He was friendly with Thebes and Argos; his son Hegesistratus he set in power at Sigeum (see E. Abbott, Hist, of Gr. vol. i. xv. 9) and his friend Lygdamis at Naxos. From the mines of Thrace, and perhaps from the harbour dues and from the mines of Laurium, he derived a large revenue; under his encouragement, Miltiades had planted an Athenian colony on the shores of the Thracian Chersonese; he had even made friends with Thessaly and Macedonia, as is evidenced by the hospitality extended by them to Hippias on his final ex- pulsion. Finally, he did not allow his friendliness with Argos to involve him in war with Sparta, towards whom he pursued a policy of moderation. (2) At home it is admitted by all authori- ties that his rule was moderate and beneficent, and that he was careful to preserve at least the form of the established constitu- tion. It is even said that, being accused of murder, he was ready to be tried by the Areopagus. Everything which he did during his third period of rule was in the interests of discipline and order. Thus he hired a mercenary bodyguard, and utilized for his own purposes the public revenues; he kept the chief magistracies (through which he ruled) in the hands of his family; he imposed a general tax1 of 10% (perhaps reduced by Hippias to 5%) on the produce of the land, and thus obtained control over the fleet and spread the burden of it over all the citizens (see the spurious letter of Peisistratus to Solon, Diog. La'ert. i. 53 ; Thuc. vi. 54 and Arnold's note ad loc.; Boeckh iii. 6; Thirlwall c. xi., pp. 72-74; and Grote). But the great wisdom of Peisistratus is shown most clearly in the skill with which he blinded the people to his absolutism. Pretending to maintain the Solonian con- stitution (as he could well afford), he realized that people would never recognize the deception if a sufficient degree of prosperity were ensured. Secondly, he knew that the greater the propor- tion of the Athenians who were prosperously at work in the country and therefore did not trouble to interfere in the work of government the less would be the danger of sedition, whose seeds are in a crowded city. Hence he appears to have encouraged agriculture by abating the tax on small farms, and even by assisting them with money and stock. Secondly, he established deme law-courts to prevent people from having recourse to the city tribunals; it is said that he himself occasionally " went on circuit," and on one of these occasions was so struck by the plaints of an old farmer on Hymettus, that he remitted all taxation on his land. Thus Athens enjoyed immunity from war and internecine struggle, and for the first time for years was in enjoyment of settled financial prosperity (see Constitution of Athens, c. 16. 7 6 «ri Kpbvov /3ios). The money which he accumulated he put to good use in the construction of roads and public buildings. Like Cleisthenes of Sicyon and Feriander of Corinth, he realized that one great source of strength to the nobles had been their presidency over the local cults. This he diminished by increasing the splendour of the Panathenaic festival every fourth year and the Dionysiac2 rites, and so created a national rather than a local religion. With the same idea he built the temple of the Pythian Apollo and began, though he did not finish, the temple of Zeus (the magni- ficent columns now standing belong to the age of Hadrian). * It should be noted as against this, the general account, that Thucydides, speaking apparently with accuracy, describes the tax as tUoffTTi (5%); the Constitution of Athens speaks of (the familiar) HCKHTJI (10%). 2 Dionysus, as the god of the rustics, was especially worshipped at Icaria, near Marathon, and so was the god of the Diacrii. It seems likely that Peisistratus, to please his supporters, originated the City-Dionysia. To him are ascribed also the original Parthenon on the Acropolis, afterwards burned by the Persians, and replaced by the Parthenon of Pericles. It is said that he gave a great impetus to the dramatic representations which belonged to the Dionysiac cult, and that it was under his encouragement that Thespis of Icaria, by impersonating character, laid the foundation of the great Greek drama of the 5th and 4th centuries. Lastly, Peisistratus carried out the purification of Delos, the- sacred island of Apollo of the lonians; all the tombs were removed from the neighbourhood of the shrine, the abode of the god of light and joy. We have spoken of his services to the state, to the poor, to religion. It remains to mention his alleged services to literature. All we can reasonably believe is that he gave encouragement to poetry as he had done to architecture and the drama; Onoma- critus, the chief of the Orphic succession, and collector of the oracles of Musaeus, was a member of his household. Honestly, or to impress the people, Peisistratus made considerable use of oracles (e.g. at the battle of Pellene), and his descendants, by the oracles of Onomacritus, persuaded Darius to undertake their restoration. As to the library of Peisistratus, we have no good evidence; it may perhaps be a fiction of an Alexandrian writer. There is strong reason for believing the story that he first collected the Homeric poems and that his was the text which ultimately prevailed (see HOMER). It appears that Peisistratus was benevolent to the last, and, like Julias Caesar, showed no resentment against enemies and calumniators. What Solon said of him in his youth was true throughout, " there is no better-disposed man in Athens, save for his ambition." He was succeeded by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus, by whom the tyranny was in various ways brought into disrepute. It should be observed that the tyranny of Peisistratus is one of the many epochs of Greek history on which opinion has almost entirely changed since the age of Grote. Shortly, his services to Greece and to the world may be summed up under three heads: In foreign policy, he sketched out the plan on which Athens was to act in her external relations. He advocated (a) alliances with Argos, Thessaly and Macedon, (6) ascendancy in the Aegean (Naxos and Delos), (c) control of the Hellespontine route (Sigeum and the Chersonese), (d) control of the Strymon valley (Mt Pangaeus and the Strymon). Further, his rule exemplifies what is characteristic of all the Greek tyrannies — the advantage which the ancient monarchy had over the republican form of government. By means of his sons and his deputies (or viceroys) and by his system of matrimonial alliances he gave Athens a widespread influence in the centres of commerce, and brought her into connexion with the growing sources of trade and production in the eastern parts of the Greek world. (2) His importance in the sphere of domestic policy has been frequently underrated. It may fairly be held that the reforms of Solon would have been futile had they not been fulfilled and amplified by the genius of Peisistratus. (3) It was under his auspices that Athens began to take the lead in literature. From this period we must date the beginning of Athenian literary ascendancy. But see ATHENS. AUTHORITIES. — Ancient: Herod, i. 50; Plut. Solon 30; Arist. Politics, v. 12, 5-1315 b.; Constitution of Athens (Ath. Pol.) cc. 14-19. On the chronological problems see also P. Meyer, Arist. Pol. and the Ath. Pol. pp. 48-9; Gomperz, Die Schrift v. Staatswesen, &c. (1891); Bauer, Lit. and hist. Forsch. z. Arist. Ath. Pol. (50 sqq.). On the characteristics of the Peisistratid tyranny see Greenidge, Handbook of Creek Constitutional History, pp. 26 sqq. ; and the histories of Greece. On the question of the family of Peisistratus see Wilamo- witz-Moellendorff, Aristoteles und Athen (Berlin, 1893) and a criticism by E. M. Walker in the Classical Review, vol. viii. p. 206, col. 2. (J. M. M.) PEKIN, a city and the county-seat of Tazewell county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Illinois river, in the central part of the state, about u m. S. of Peoria, and about 56 m. N. of Springfield. Pop. (1910), 9897. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Peoria Railway Terminal Company, the Peoria PEKING 61 & Pekin Union and (for freight between Peoria and Pekin) the Illinois Valley Belt railways. Situated in a rich agricultural region and in the Illinois coalfields, Pekin is a shipping point and grain market of considerable importance, and has various manufactures. The value of the factory products in 1905 was $1,121,130. Pekin was first settled about 1830, was incorpor- ated in 1839, and re-incorporated in 1874. PEKING, or PEKIN, the capital of the Chinese Empire, situated in 39° 57' N. and 116° 29' E., on the northern extremity of the great alluvial delta which extends southward from its walls for 700 m. For nine centuries Peking, under various names and under the dominion of successive dynasties, has, with some short intervals, remained an imperial city. Its situation near the northern frontier recommended it to the Tatar invaders as a convenient centre for their power, and its peculiarly fortunate position as regards the supernatural terrestrial influences per- taining to it has inclined succeeding Chinese monarchs to accept it as the seat of their courts. In 986 it was taken by an invading force of Khitan Tatars, who adopted it as their headquarters and named it Nanking, or the " southern capital." During the early part of the 1 2th century the Chinese recaptured it and re- duced it from the rank of a metropolis to that of a provincial city of the first grade, and called it Yen-shan Fu. In 1151 it fell into the hands of the Kin Tatars, who made it a royal residence under the name of Chung-tu, or " central capital." Less than a century later it became the prize of Jenghiz Khan, who, having his main interests centred on the Mongolian steppes, declined to move his court southwards. His great successor, Kublai Khan (1280-1294), rebuilt the town, which he called Yenking, and which became known in Chinese as Ta-tu, or " great court," and in Mongolian as Khanbalik (Cambaluc), or " city of the khan." During the reign of the first emperor of the dynasty (1368-1399) which succeeded that founded by Jenghiz Khan the court resided at the modern Nanking, but the succeeding sovereign Yung-lo (1403-1425) transferred his court to Pe-king (i.e. " north-court "), which has ever since been the seat of government. For further history see CAMBALUC. During the periods above mentioned the extent and boundaries of the city varied considerably. Under the Kin dynasty the walls extended to the south-west of the Tatar portion of the present city, and the foundations of the northern ramparts of the Khan-balik of Kublai Khan are still to be traced at a distance of about 2 m. north beyond the existing walls. The modern city consists of the nei ch' eng, or inner city, commonly known to foreigners as the " Tatar city," and the wai ch'Sng, or outer city, known in the same way as the " Chinese city." These names are somewhat misleading, as the inner city is not enclosed within the outer city, but adjoins its northern wall, which, being longer than the nei ch'eng is wide, outflanks it considerably at both ends. The outer walls of the double city contain an area of about 25 sq. m., and measure 30 m. in circumference. Unlike the walls of most Chinese cities, those of Peking are kept in perfect order. Those of the Tatar portion, which is the oldest part of the city, are 50 ft. high, with a width of 60 ft. at the base and 40 ft. at the top, while those of the Chinese city, which were built by the emperor Kia-tsing in 1543, measure 30 ft. in height, and have a width of 25 ft. at the base and 15 ft. at the top. The terre-plein is well and smoothly paved, and is defended by a crenellated parapet. The outer faces of the walls are strength- ened by square buttresses built out at intervals of 60 yds., and on the summits of these stand the guard-houses for the troops on duty. Each of the sixteen gates of the city is protected by a semi-circular enceinte, and is surmounted by a high tower built in galleries and provided with countless loopholes. Peking suffered severely during the Boxer movement and the siege of the legations in the summer of 1900. Not only were most of the foreign buildings destroyed, but also a large number of important Chinese buildings in the vicinity of the foreign quarter, including the ancient Hanlin Yuen, the boards of war, rites, &c. Almost the whole of the business quarter, the wealthiest part of the Chinese city, was laid in ashes (see CHINA: History). The population of Peking is reckoned to be about 1,000,000, a number which is out of all proportion to the immense area enclosed within its walls. This disparity is partly accounted for by the facts that large spaces, notably in the Chinese city, are not built over, and that the grounds surrounding the imperial palace, private residences and temples are very extensive. One of such enclosures constitutes the British legation, and most of the other foreign legations are similarly, though not so sumptuously, lodged. Viewed from the walls Peking looks like a city of gardens. Few crowded neighbourhoods are visible, and the characteristic features of the scene which meets the eye are the upturned roofs of temples, palaces, and mansions, gay with blue, green and yellow glazed tiles, glittering among the groves -of trees with which the city abounds. It is fortunate that the city is not close-built or crowded, for since the first advent of foreigners in Peking in 1860 nothing whatever had been done until 1900 to improve the streets or the drainage. The streets as originally laid out were wide and spacious, but being unpaved and undrained they were no better than mud tracks diversified by piles of garbage and foul-smelling stagnant pools. Such drainage as had at one time existed was allowed to get choked up, giving rise to typhoid fever of a virulent type. Some attempt has been made to improve matters by macadamizing one of the principal thoroughfares, but it will be the labour of a Hercules to cleanse this vast city from the accumulated filth of ages of neglect. Enclosed within the Tatar city is the Hwang ch'tng, or " Imperial city," which in its turn encloses the Tsze-kin ch'Sng, or " Forbidden city," in which stands the emperor's palace. On the north of the Tsze-kin ch'tng, and separated from it by a moat, is an artificial mound known as the Kings/tan, or " Pros- pect Hill." This mound, which forms a prominent object in the view over the city, is about 150 ft. high, and is topped with five summits, on each of which stands a temple. It is encircled by a wall measuring upwards of a mile in circumference, and is prettily planted with trees, on one of which the last emperor of the Ming dynasty (1644), finding escape from the Manchu invaders impossible, hanged himself. On the west of Prospect Hill is the Si yuan, or " Western Park," which forms part of the palace grounds. This park is tastefully laid out, and is traversed by a lake, which is mainly noticeable from the remark- ably handsome marble bridge which crosses it from east to west. Directly northwards from Prospect Hill stands the residence of the T'itu, or "governor of the city," and the Bell and the Drum Towers, both of which have attained celebrity from the nature of their contents — the first from the huge bell which hangs in it, and the second from the appliances it contains for marking the time. The bell is one of five which the emperor Yung-lo ordered to be cast. In common with the others, it weighs 120,000 Ib, is 14 ft. high, 34 ft. in circumference at the rim, and 9 in. thick. It is struck by a wooden beam swung on the outside, and only at the changes of the night-watches, when its deep tone may be heard in all parts of the city. In the Drum Tower incense-sticks, specially prepared by the astronomical board, are kept burning to mark the passage of time, in which important duty their accuracy is checked by a clepsydra. Another of Yung-lo's bells is hung in a Buddhist temple outside the north-west angle of the city wall, and is covered both on the inside and outside with the Chinese texts of the Lankavatara Sutra, and the Sad- dharma pundarika Sutra. Turning southwards we come again to the Forbidden City, the central portion of which forms the imperial palace, where, in halls which for the magnificence of their proportions and barbaric splendour are probably not to be surpassed anywhere, the Son of Heaven holds his court. In the eastern and western portions of this city are situated the residences of the highest dignitaries of the empire; while beyond its confines on the south stand the offices of the six official boards which direct the affairs of the eighteen provinces. It was in the " yamen " of one of these boards — the Li Pu or board of rites— that Lord Elgin signed the treaty at the conclusion of the war in 1860 — an event which derives especial interest from the fact of its having been the first 62 PELAGIA, ST— PELAGIUS (POPES) occasion on which a European plenipotentiary ever entered Peking accompanied by all the pomp and circumstance of his rank. Outside the Forbidden City the most noteworthy building is the Temple of Heaven, which stands in the outer or Chinese city. Here at early morning on the zist of December the emperor offers sacrifice on an open altar to Shang-ti, and at periods of drought or famine presents prayers for relief to the same supreme deity. The altar at which these solemn rites are performed consists of a triple circular marble terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base, 150 in the middle and 90 at the top. The uppermost surface is paved with blocks of the same material forming nine concentric circles, the innermost consisting of nine blocks, and that on the outside of eighty-one blocks. On the central stone, which is a perfect circle, the emperor kneels. In the same temple stands the altar of prayer for good harvests, which is surmounted by a triple-roofed circular structure 99 ft. in height. The tiles of these roofs are glazed porcelain of the most exquisite deep-blue colour, and add a conspicuous element of splendour to the shrine. The other powers of nature have shrines dedicated to them in the altar: to the Earth on the north of the city, the altars to the Sun and Moon outside the north-eastern and north-western angles respectively of the Chinese city, and the altar of agricul- ture inside the south gate of the Chinese city. Next to these in religious importance comes the Confucian temple, known as the Kwo-tsze-kien. Here there is no splendour; everything is quite plain; and one hall contains all that is sacred in the building. There the tablets of " the soul of the most holy ancestral teacher, Confucius," and of his ten principal disciples stand as objects of worship for their countless followers. In one courtyard of this temple are deposited the celebrated ten stone drums which bear poetical inscriptions commemorative of the hunting expeditions of King Suan (827-781 B.C.), in whose reign they are believed, though erroneously, to have been cut; and in another stands a series of stone tablets on which are inscribed the names of all those who have obtained the highest literary degree of Tsin-shi for the last five centuries. In the south-eastern portion of the Tatar city used to stand the observatory, which was built by order of Kublai Khan in 1296. During the period of the Jesuit ascendancy in the reign of K'ang-hi (1661-1721), the superintendence of this institution was confided to Roman Catholic missionaries, under whose guidance the bronze instruments formerly existing were con- structed. The inhabitants of Peking being consumers only, and in no way producers, the trade of the city is very small, though the city is open to foreign commerce. In 1897 a railway was opened between Tientsin and Peking. This was only effected after great opposition from the ultra-Conservatives, but once accomplished the facilities were gladly accepted by all classes, and the traffic both in goods and passengers is already enormous. Out of deference to the scruples of the ultra-Conser- vatives, the terminus was fixed at a place called Lu-Kou-ch'iao, some 4 m. outside the walls, but this distance has since been covered by an electric tramway. The trunk line constructed by the Franco-Belgian syndicate connects Lu-Kou-ch'iao, the original terminus, with Hankow — hence the name Lu-Han by which this trunk line is generally spoken of, Lu being short for Lu-Kou-ch'iao and Han for Hankow. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A Williamson, Journeys in North China, Man- churia and Eastern Mongolia (2 vols., London, 1870) ; S. W. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, revised ed. (New York, 1883); A Favier, Peking, histoire et description (Peking, 1900 — contains over 800 illustrations, most of them reproductions of the work of Chinese artists) ; N. Oliphant, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking during the Summer of 1900 (London, 1901); A. H. Smith, China in Convulsion (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1902). (R. K. D.) PELAGIA, ST. An Antiochene saint of this name, a virgin of fifteen years, who chose death by a leap from the housetop rather than dishonour, is mentioned by Ambrose (De virg. iii. 7, 33! Ep. xxxvii. ad Simplic.), and is the subject of two sermons by Chrysostom. Her festival was celebrated on the 8th of October (Wright's Syriac Marlyrology). In the Greek synaxaria the same day is assigned to two other saints of the name of Pelagia — one, also of Antioch, and sometimes called Margarito and also " the sinner "; the other, known as Pelagia of Tarsus, in Cilicia. The legend of the former of these two is famous. She was a celebrated dancer and courtesan, who, in the full flower of her beauty and guilty sovereignty over the youth of Antioch, was suddenly converted by the influence of the holy bishop Nonnus, whom she had heard preaching in front of a church which she was passing with her gay train of attendants and admirers. Seeking out Nonnus, she overcame, his canonical scruples by her tears of genuine penitence, was baptized, and, disguising herself in the garb of a male penitent, retired to a grotto on the Mount of Olives, where she died after three years of strict penance. This story seems to combine with the name of the older Pelagia some traits from an actual history referred to by Chrysostom (Horn, in Malth. Ixvii. 3). In associating St Pelagia with St Marina, St Margaret (q.v.), and others, of whom either the name or the legend recalls Pelagia, Hermann Usener has endeavoured to show by a series of subtle deductions that this saint is only a Christian travesty of Aphrodite. But there is no doubt of the existence of the first Pelagia of Antioch, the Pelagia of Ambrose and Chrysostom. The legends which have subsequently become connected with her name are the result of a very common development in literary history. See Acta sanctorum, October, iv. 248 seq.; H. Usener, Legenden der heiligen Pelagia (Bonn, 1879); H. Delehaye, The Legends of the Saints (London, 1907), pp. 197-205. (H. DE.) PELAGIUS, the name of two popes. PELAGIUS I., pope from 555 to 561, was a Roman by birth, and first appears in history at Constantinople in the rank of deacon, and as apocrisiarius of Pope Silverius, whose over- throw in favour of Vigilius his intrigues promoted. Vigilius continued him in his diplomatic appointment, and he was sent by the emperor Justinian in 542 to Antioch on eccle- siastical business; he afterwards took part in the synod at Gaza which deposed Paul of Alexandria. He had amassed some wealth, which on his return to Rome he so employed among the poor as to secure for himself great popularity; and, when Vigilius was summoned to Byzantium in 544, Pelagius, now archdeacon, was left behind as his vicar, and by his tact in dealing with Totila, the Gothic invader, saved the citizens from murder and outrage. He appears to have followed his master to Constantinople, and to have taken part in the Three Chapters controversy; in 553, at all events, he signed the " constitutum " of Vigilius in favour of these, and for refusing, with him, to accept the decrees of the fifth general council (the 2nd of Constantinople, 553) shared his exile. Even after Vigilius had approved the comdemnation of the Three Chapters, Pelagius defended them, and even pub- lished a book on the subject. But when Vigilius died (June 7, 555), he accepted the council, and allowed himself to be desig- nated by Justinian to succeed the late pope. It was in these circumstances that he returned to Rome; but most of the clergy, suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some share in the removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship. He enjoyed, however, the support of Narses, and, after he had publicly purged himself of complicity in Vigilius's death in the church of St Peter, he met with toleration in his own immediate diocese. The rest of the western bishops, however, still held aloof, and the episcopate of Tuscany caused his name to be removed from the diptychs. This elicited from him a circular, in which he asserted his loyalty to the four general councils, and declared that the hostile bishops had been guilty of schism. The bishops of Liguria and Aemilia, headed by the archbishop of Milan, and those of Istria and Venice, headed by Paulinus of Aquileia, also withheld their fellowship; but Narses resisted the appeals of Pelagius, who would have invoked the secular arm. Childebert, king of the Franks, also refused to interfere. Pelagius died on the 4th of March 561, and was succeeded by John III. PELAGIUS II., a native of Rome, but of Gothic descent, was pope from 579 to 590, having been consecrated successor of Benedict I., without the sanction of the emperor, on the 26th of PELAGIUS November. To make his apologies for this irregularity he sent Deacon Gregory, who afterwards became Pope Gregory the Great, as his apocrisiarius to Constantinople. In 585 he sought to heal the schism which had subsisted since the time of Pelagius I. in connexion with the Three Chapters, but his efforts were without success. In 588 John, patriarch of Constantinople, by reviving the old and disputed claim to the title of oecumenic patriarch, elicited a vigorous protest from Pelagius; but the decretal which professes to convey the exact words of the document is now known to be false. He died in January 590, and was succeeded by Gregory I. PELAGIUS (c. 360- c. 420), early British theologian. Of the origin of Pelagius almost nothing is known. The name is supposed to be a graecized form of the Cymric Morgan (sea- begotten). His contemporaries understood that he was of British (probably of Irish) birth, and gave him the appellation Brito. He was a large ponderous person, heavy both in body and mind (Jerome, " stolidissimus et Scotorum pultibus prae- gravatus "). He was influenced by the monastic enthusiasm which had been kindled in Gaul by Athanasius (336), and which, through the energy of Martin of Tours (361), rapidly communi- cated itself to the Britons and Scots. For, though Pelagius remained a layman throughout his life, and though he never appears in any strict connexion with a coenobite fraternity, he yet adhered to monastic discipline ("veluti monachus "), and distinguished himself by his purity of life and exceptional sanctity (" egregie Christianus ")• He seems to have been one of the earliest, if not the very earliest, of that remarkable series of men who issued from the monasteries of Scotland and Ireland, and carried back to the Continent in a purified form the religion they had received from it. Coming to Rome in the beginning of the 5th century (his earliest known writing is of date 405), he found a scandalously low tone of morality prevalent. But his remonstrances were met by the plea of human weakness. To remove this plea by exhibiting the actual powers of human nature became his first object. It seemed to him that the Augustinian doctrine of total depravity and of the consequent bondage of the will both cut the sinew of all human effort and threw upon God the blame which really belonged to man. His favourite maxim was, " If I ought, I can." The views of Pelagius did not originate in a conscious reaction against the influence of the Augustinian theology, although each of these systems was developed into its ultimate form by the opposition of the other. Neither must too much weight be allowed to the circumstance that Pelagius was a monk, for he was unquestionably alive to the delusive character of much that passed for monkish sanctity. Yet possibly his monastic training may have led him to look more at conduct than at character, and to believe that holiness could be arrived at by rigour of discipline. This view of things suited his matter-of-fact temperament. Judging from the general style of his writings, his religious development had been equable and peaceful, not marked by the prolonged mental conflict, or the abrupt transi- tions, which characterized the experience of his great opponent. With no great penetration he saw very clearly the thing before him, and many of his practical counsels are marked by sagacity, and are expressed with the succinctness of a proverb (" corpus non frangendum, sed regendum est "). His interests were primarily ethical; hence his insistence on the freedom of the will and his limitation of the action of divine grace. The peculiar tenets of Pelagius, though indicated in the commentaries which he published at Rome previous to 409, might not so speedily have attracted attention had they not been adopted by Coelestius, a much younger and bolder man than his teacher. Coelestius, probably an Italian, had been trained as a lawyer, but abandoned his profession for an ascetic life. When Rome was sacked by the Goths (410) the two friends crossed to Africa. There Pelagius once or twice met with Augustine, but very shortly sailed for Palestine, where he justly expected that his opinions would be more cordially received. Coelestius remained in Carthage with the view of receiving ordination. But Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, being warned against him, summoned a synod, at which Paulinus, a deacon of Milan, charged Coelestius with holding the following six errors: (i) that Adam would have died even if he had not sinned; (2) that the sin of Adam injured himself alone, not the human race; (3) that new-born children are in the same condition in which Adam was before the fall; (4) that the whole human race does not die because of Adam's death or sin, nor will the race rise again because of the resurrection of Christ; (5) that the law gives entrance to heaven as well as the gospel; (6) that even before the coming of Christ there were men who were entirely without sin. To these propositions a seventh is sometimes added, " that infants, though unbaptized, have eternal life," a corollary from the third. Coelestius did not deny that he held these opinions, but he maintained that they were open questions, on which the Church had never pronounced. The synod, notwithstanding, condemned and excommunicated him. Coelestius, after a futile appeal to Rome, went to Ephesus, and there received ordination. In Palestine Pelagius lived unmolested and revered, until in 415 Orosius, a Spanish priest, came from Augustine, who in the meantime had written his De peccatorum mentis, to warn Jerome against him. The result was that in June of that year Pelagius was cited by Jerome before John, bishop of Jerusalem, and charged with holding that man may be without sin, if only he desires it. This prosecution broke down, and in December of the same year Pelagius was summoned before a synod of fourteen bishops at Diospolis (Lydda). The prosecutors on this occasion were two deposed Gallican bishops, Heros of Aries and Lazarus of Aix, but on account of the illness of one of them neither could appear. The proceedings, being conducted in various languages and by means of interpreters, lacked certainty, and justified Jerome's application to the synod of the epithet " miserable." But there is no doubt that Pelagius repudiated the assertion of Coelestius, that " the divine grace and help is not granted to individual acts, but consists in free will, and in the giving of the law and instruction." At the same time he affirmed that a man is able, if he likes, to live without sin and keep the command- ments of God, inasmuch as God gives him this ability. The synod was satisfied with these statements, and pronounced Pelagius to be in agreement with Catholic teaching. Pelagius naturally plumed himself on his acquittal, and provoked Augus- tine to give a detailed account of the synod, in which he shows that the language used by Pelagius was ambiguous, but that, being interpreted by his previous written statements, it involved a denial of what the Church understood by grace and by man's dependence on it. The North African Church as a whole resented the decisions of Diospolis, and in 416 sent up from their synods of Carthage and Mileve (in Numidia) an appeal to Innocent, bishop of Rome, who, flattered by the tribute thus paid to the see of Rome, decided the question in favour of the African synods. And, though his successor Zosimus wavered for some time, he at length fell in with what he saw to be the general mind of both the ecclesiastical and the civil powers. For, simultaneously with the largely attended African synod which finally condemned Pelagianism in the West, an imperial edict was issued at Ravenna by Honorius on the 3oth of April 418, peremptorily determining the theological question and enacting that not only Pelagius and Coelestius but all who accepted their opinions should suffer confiscation of goods and irrevocable banishment. Thus prompted, Zosimus drew up a circular inviting all the bishops of Christendom to subscribe a condemnation of Pelagian opinions. Nineteen Italian bishops refused, among them Julian of Eclanum in Apulia, a man of good birth, approved sanctity and great capacity, who now became the recognized leader of the movement. But not even his acuteness and zeal could redeem a cause which was rendered hopeless when the Eastern Church (Ephesus, 431) confirmed the decision of the West. Pelagius himself disappears after 420; Coelestius was at Constantinople seeking the aid of Nestorius in 428. Pelagianism. — The system of Pelagius is a consistent whole, each part involving the existence of every other. Starting from the idea that " ability limits obligation," and resolved that men 64 PELAGIUS should feel their responsibility, he insisted that man is able to do all that God commands, and that there is, and can be, no sin where the will is not absolutely free-^-able to choose good or evil. The favourite Pelagian formula, " Si necessitatis est, peccatum non est; si voluntatis, vitari potest," had an appearance of finality which imposed on superficial minds. The theory of the will involved in this fundamental axiom of Pelagianism is that which is commonly known as the " liberty of indifference," or " power of contrary choice " — a theory which affirms the freedom of the will, not in the sense that the individual is self-determined, but in the sense that in each volition and at each moment of life, no matter what the previous career of the individual has been, the will is in equipoise, able to choose good or evil. We are born characterless (non pleni), and with no bias towards good or evil (ut sine virtute, ita et sine vitio). It follows that we are uninjured by the sin of Adam, save in so far as the evil example of our predecessors misleads and influences us (non propagine sed exemplo). There is, in fact, no such thing as original sin, sin being a thing of will and not of nature; for if it could be of nature our sin would be chargeable on God the creator. This will, capable of good as of evil, being the natural endowment of man, is found in the heathen as well as in the Christian, and the heathen may therefore perfectly keep such law as they know. But, if all men have this natural ability to do and to be all that is required for perfect righteousness, what becomes of grace, of the aid of the Holy Spirit, and, in a word, of Christianity ? Pelagius vacillates considerably in his use of the word " grace." Sometimes he makes it equivalent to natural endowment. Indeed one of his most careful statements is to this effect: " We distinguish three things — the ability, the will, the act (posse, velle, esse). The ability is in nature, and must be referred to God, who has bestowed this on His creature; the other two, the will and the act, must be referred to man, because they flow from the fountain of free will " (Aug., De gr. Christi, ch. 4). But at other times he admits a much wider range to grace, so as to make Augustine doubt whether his meaning is not, after all, orthodox. But, when he speaks of grace " sanctifying," " assisting," and so forth, it is only that man may " more easily " accomplish what he could with more difficulty accomplish without grace. A decisive passage occurs in the letter he sent to the see of Rome along with his Confessio fidei : " We maintain that free will exists generally in all mankind, in Christians, Jews and Gentiles; they have all equally received it by nature, but in Christians only is it assisted by grace. In others this good of their original creation is naked and unarmed. They shall be judged and condemned because, though possessed of free will, by which they might come to the faith and merit the grace •of God, they make an ill use of their freedom ; while Christians shall be rewarded because, by using their free will aright, they merit the grace of the Lord and keep His commandments ' (ibid. chs. 33, 34). Pelagius allowed to grace everything but the initial determining movement towards salvation. He ascribed to the unassisted human will power to accept and use the proffered salvation of Christ. It was at this point his departure from the Catholic creed could be made apparent: Pelagius maintains, expressly and by implication, that it is the human will which takes the initiative, and is the •determining factor in the salvation of the individual; while the Church maintains that it is the divine will that takes the initiative by renewing and enabling the human will to accept and use the aid or grace offered. Semipelagianism. — It was easy for Augustine to show that this was an " impia opinio " ; it was easy for him to expose the defective character of a theory of the will which implied that God was not holy because He i§ necessarily holy ; it was easy for him to show that the positions of Pelagius were anti-Scriptural (see AUGUSTINE) ; but, though his arguments prevailed, they did not wholly convince, and the rise of Semipelagianism — an attempt to hold a middle course between the harshness of Augustinianism and the obvious errors of Pelagianism — is full of significance. This earnest and conciliatory movement discovered itself simultaneously in North Africa and in southern Gaul. In the former Church, which naturally desired to adhere to the views of its own great theologian, the monks of Adrum- etum found themselves either sunk to the verge of despair or pro- voked to licentiousness by his predestinarian teaching. When this was reported to Augustine he wrote two elaborate treatises to show that when God ordains the end He also ordains the means, and if any man is ordained to life eternal he is thereby ordained to holiness and zealous effort. But meanwhile some of the monks themselves had struck out a via media which ascribed to God sovereign grace and yet left intact man's responsibility. A similar scheme was adopted by Cassian of Marseilles (hence Semipelagians are often spoken of as Massilians), and was afterwards ably advocated by Vincent of Lerins and Faustus of Rhegium. These writers, in opposition to Pelagius, maintained that man was damaged by the fall, and seemed indeed disposed to purchase a certificate of orthodoxy by the abusive epithets they heaped upon Pelagians (ranae, muscae moriturae, &c.). The differentia of Semipelagianism is the tenet that in regeneration, and all that results from it, the divine and the human will are co-operating (synergistic) coefficient factors. After finding considerable acceptance, this theory was ultimately condemned, because it retained the root-principle of Pelagianism — that man has some ability to will good and that the beginning of salvation may be with man. The Councils of Orange and Valence (529), however, which condemned Semipelagianism, did so with the significant restriction that predestination to evil was not to be taught — a restriction so agreeable to the general feeling of the Church that, three centuries after, Gottschalk was sentenced to be degraded from the priesthood, scourged and imprisoned for teaching reprobation. The questions raised by Pelagius continually recur, but, without tracing the strife as sustained by Thomists and Jansen- ists on the one side and the Jesuits and Armmians on the other, this article can only indicate the general bearing of the controversy on society and the Church. The anthropology of Pelagius was essentially naturalistic. It threatened to supersede grace by nature, to deny all immediate divine influence, and so to make Christianity practically useless. Pelagius himself did not carry his rationalism through to its issues; but the logical consequence of his system was, as Augustine per- ceived, the denial of the atonement and other central truths of revealed religion. And, while the Pelagians never existed as a sect separate from the Church Catholic, yet wherever rationalism has infected any part of the Church there Pelagianism has sooner or later appeared; and the term " Pelagian " has been continued to denote views which minimize the effects of the fall and unduly magnify man's natural ability. These views and tendencies have appeared in theologies which are not in other respects rationalistic, as, e.g. in Arminianism; and their presence in such theologies is explained by the desire to remove everything which might seem to discourage human effort. It is not easy to determine how far the vices which ate so deeply into the life of the Church of the middle ages were due to the sharp- ness with which some of the severer features of the Augustinian theology were defined during the Pelagian controversy. The pernicious belief in the magical efficacy of the sacraments and the consequent detective ethical power of religion, the superstitious eagerness to accept the Church's creed without examining or really believing it, the falsity and cruelty engendered and propagated by the idea that in the Church's cause all weapons were justifiable, these vices were undoubtedly due to the belief that the visible church was the sole divinely-appointed repository of grace. And the sharply accentuated tone in which Augustinianism affirmed man's inability quickened the craving for that grace or direct agency of God upon the soul which the Church declared to be needful and administered through her divinely appointed persons and sacra- ments, and thus brought a decided impulse to the development of the sacerdotal system. Again, although it may fairly be doubted whether, as Baur supposes, Augustine was permanently tainted with the Manichaean notion of the inherent evil of matter, it can scarcely be questioned that his views on marriage as elicited by the Pelagian controversy gave a considerable impulse to the already prevalent idea of the superiority of virginity. When the Pelagians declared that Augus- tine's theory of original sin discredited marriage by the implication that even the children of the regenerate were born in sin, he could only reply (De nuptiis et concupiscentia) that marriage now cannot partake of the spotless purity of the marriage of unfallen man, and that, though what is evil in concupiscence is made a good use of in marriage, it is still a thing to be ashamed of — not only with the shame of natural modesty (which he does not take into account) but with the shame of guilt. So that, even although he is careful to point out the advantages of marriage, an indelible stigma is still left even on the lawful procreation of children. " The Pelagians deserve respect," says Harnack, " for their purity of motive, their horror of the Manichaean leaven and the opus operatum, their insistence on clearness, and their intention to defend the Deity. But we cannot but decide that their doctrine fails to recognize the misery of sin and evil, that in its deepest roots it is godless, that it knows, and seeks to know, nothing of redemption and that it is dominated by an empty formalism (a notional mytho- logy), which does justice at no single point to actual quantities, and on a closer examination consists of sheer contradictions. In the form in which this doctrine was expressed by Pelagius — and in fact also by Julian-^-i.e. with all the accommodations to which he condescended, it was not a novelty. But in its fundamental thought it was; or rather, it was an innovation because it abandoned in spite of all accommodations in expression, the pole of the mystical doctrine of redemption, which the Church had steadfastly maintained side by side with the doctrine of freedom." In the Pelagian controversy some of the fundamental differences between the Eastern and Western theologies appear. The former laid stress on " the supernatural character of Christianity as a fact in the objective world " and developed the doctrines of the Trinity and the Incarnation; the Western emphasized " the supernatural charac- ter of Christianity as an agency in the subjective world " and developed the doctrines of sin and grace. All the Greek fathers from Origen to Chrysostum had been jealous for human freedom and loath to make sin a natural power, though of course admitting a general state of sinfulness. The early British monasteries had been connected with the Orient. Pelagius was familiar with the Greek language and theology, and when he came to Rome he was much in the company of Rufinus and his circle who were endeavouring to propagate Greek theology in the Latin Church. LITERATURE. — Pelagius's Gommentarii in epistolas Pauli, Libellus PELASGIANS— PELEUS fidei ad Innocenlium and Epistola ad Demetriadem are preserved in Jerome's works (vol. v. of Martiani's ed., vol. xi. of Vallarsi's). The last-named was also published separately by Semler (Halle, 1775). There are of course many citations in the Anti-Pelagian Treatises of Augustine. On the Commentaries see Journal of Theol. Studies, vii. 568, viii. 526; an edition is being prepared for the Cambridge Texts and Studies by A. Souter. See also F. Wiggers, Darstellung des Augustinismus und Pelagianis- mus (2 vols., Berlin, 1831-1832 ; Eng. trans, of vol. i., by R. Emerson, Andover, 1840); J. L. Jacobi, Die Lehre d. Pelagius (Leipzig, 1842); F. Klasen, Die innere Entivickelung des Pelagianismus (Freiburg, 1882) ; B. B. Warfield, Two Studies in the History of Doctrine (New York, 1893) ; A. Haniack, History of Dogma, Eng. trans., v. 168-202 ; F. Loofs, Dogmengeschischte and art. in Hauck-Herzog's Real- encyklo. fur prot. Theologie u. Kirche (end of vol. xv.), where a full bibliography is given. (M. D.) PELASGIANS, a name applied by Greek writers to a pre- historic people whose traces were believed to exist in Greek lands. If the statements of ancient authorities are marshalled in order of their date it will be seen that certain beliefs cannot be traced back beyond the age of this or that author. Though this does not prove that the beliefs themselves were not held earlier, it suggests caution in assuming that they were. In the Homeric poems there are Pelasgians among the allies of Troy: in the catalogue, Iliad, ii. 840-843, which is otherwise in strict geogra- phical order, they stand between the Hellespontine towns and the Thracians of south-east Europe, i.e. on the Hellespontine border of Thrace. Their town or district is called Larissa and is fertile, and they are celebrated for their spearmanship. Their chiefs are Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus son of Teutamus. Iliad, x. 428-429, describes their camping ground between the town of Troy and the sea; but this obviously proves nothing about their habitat in time of peace. Odyssey, xvii. 175-177, notes Pelasgians in Crete, together with two appa- rently indigenous and two immigrant peoples (Achaeans and Dorians), but gives no indication to which class the Pelasgians belong. In Lemnos (Iliad, vii. 467; xiv. 230) there are no Pelasgians, but a Minyan dynasty. Two other passages (Iliad, ii. 681-684; xvi. 233-235) apply the epithet " Pelasgic " to a district called Argos about Mt Othrys in south Thessaly, and to Zeus of Dodona. But in neither case are actual Pelasgians mentioned; the Thessalian Argos is the specific home of Hellenes and Achaeans, and Dodona is inhabited by Perrhaebians and Aenianes (Iliad, ii. 750) who are nowhere described as Pelasgian. It looks therefore as if " Pelasgian " were here used connota- tively, to mean either " formerly occupied by Pelasgian " or simply " of immemorial age." Hesiod expands the Homeric phrase and calls Dodona " seat of Pelasgians " (fr. 225); he speaks also of a personal Pelasgus as father of Lycaon, the culture-hero of Arcadia; and a later epic poet, Asius, describes Pelasgus as the first man, whom the earth threw up that there might be a race of men. Hecataeus makes Pelasgus king of Thessaly (expounding Iliad, ii. 681-684) ; Acusilaus applies this Homeric passage to the Peloponnesian Argos, and engrafts the Hesiodic Pelasgus, father of Lycaon, into a Peloponnesian genealogy. Hellanicus a generation later repeats this blunder, and identifies this Argive and Arcadian Pelasgus with the Thessalian Pelasgus of Hecataeus. For Aeschylus (Supplices i, sqq.) Pelasgus is earthborn, as in Asius, and rules a kingdom stretching from Argos to Dodona and the Strymon; but in Prometheus 879, the " Pelasgian " land simply means Argos. Sophocles takes the same view (Inachus, fr. 256) and for the first time introduces the word " Tyrrhenian " into the story, apparently as synonymous with Pelasgian. Herodotus, like Homer, has a denotative as well as a conno- tative use. He describes actual Pelasgians surviving and mutually intelligible (a) at Placie and Scylace on the Asiatic shore of the Hellespont, and (b) near Creston on the Strymon; in the latter area they have " Tyrrhenian " neighbours. He alludes to other districts where Pelasgian peoples lived on under changed names; Samothrace and Antandrus in Troas are probably instances of this. In Lemnos and Imbros he describes a Pelasgian population who were only conquered by Athens shortly before 500 B.C., and in this connexion he tells a story of earlier raids of these Pelasgians on Attica, and of a temporary xxi. 3 settlement there of Hellespontine Pelasgians, all dating from a time " when the Athenians were first beginning to count as Greeks." Elsewhere " Pelasgian " in Herodotus connotes anything typical of, or surviving from, the state of things in Greece before the coming of the Hellenes. In this sense all Greece was once " Pelasgic "; the clearest instances of Pelasgian survival in ritual and customs and antiquities are in Arcadia, the " Ionian " districts of north-west Peloponnese, and Attica, which have suffered least from hellenization. In Athens itself the prehistoric wall of the citadel and a plot of ground close below it were venerated in the 5th century as " Pelasgian "; so too Thucydides (ii. 17). We may note that all Herodotean examples of actual Pelasgi lie round, or near, the actual Pelasgi of Homeric Thrace; that the most distant of these is confirmed by the testimony of Thucydides (iv. 106) as to the Pelasgian and Tyrrhenian population of the adjacent seaboard: also that Thucydides adopts the same general Pelasgian theory of early Greece, with the refinement that he regards the Pelasgian name as originally specific, and as having come gradually into this generic use. Ephorus, relying on Hesiodic tradition of an aboriginal Pelas- gian type in Arcadia, elaborated a theory of the Pelasgians as a warrior- people spreading (like " Aryans ") from a " Pelasgian home," and annexing and colonizing all the parts of Greece where earlier writers had found allusions to them, from Dodona to Crete and the Troad, and even as far as Italy, where again their settlements had been recognized as early as the time of Hellanicus, in close connexion once more with " Tyrrhenians." The copious additional information given by later writers is all by way either of interpretation of local legends in the light of Ephorus's theory, or of explanation of the name" Pelasgoi "; as when Philochorus expands a popular etymology " stork-folk " (ireXacryoi — 7reXap7of) into a theory of their seasonal migrations; or Apollodorus says that Homer calls Zeus Pelasgian " because he is not far from every one of us," &n TTJS 77}$ TeXas tariv. The connexion with Tyrrhenians which began with Hellanicus, Herodotus and Sophocles becomes confusion with them in the 3rd century, when the Lemnian pirates and their Attic kinsmen are plainly styled Tyrrhenians, and early fortress-walls in Italy (like those on the Palatine in Rome) are quoted as " Arcadian " colonies. Modern writers have either been content to restate or amplify the view, ascribed above to Ephorus, that " Pelasgian " simply means " prehistoric Greek," or have used the name Pelasgian at their pleasure to denote some one element in the mixed population of the Aegean — Thracian, Illyrian (Albanian) or Semitic. G. Sergi (Origine e diffusions delta stirpe mcditer- ranea, Rome, 1895; Eng. trans. The Mediterranean Race, London, 1901), followed by many anthropologists, describes as " Pelasgian " one branch of the Mediterranean or Eur-African race of mankind, and one group of types of skull within that race. The character of the ancient citadel wall at Athens, already mentioned, has given the name " Pelasgic masonry " to all constructions of large unhewn blocks fitted roughly together without mortar, from Asia Minor to Spain. For another view than that here taken see ACHAEANS; also GREECE: Ancient History, § 3, " Homeric Age." BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides sections on the subject in all principal histories of Greece and bibliographies in G. Busolt, Gr. Geschichte, i2 (Gotha, 1893, 164-182) ; and K. F. Hermann (Thumser), Gr. Staats- alterthumer, § 6, see S. Bruck, Quae veteres de Pelasgis tradiderint (Breslau, 1884) ; B. Giseke, Thrakisch-pelasgische Stdmme auf der Balkanhalbinsel (Leipzig, 1858); F. G. Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854); P. Volkmuth, Die Pelasger als Semiten (Schaffhausen, 1860); H. Kiepert, Monatsbericht d. berl. Akademie (1861), pp. 114 sqq.; K. Pauli, Eine vorgriechische^ InschriU auf Lemnos (Leipzig, 1886); E. Meyer, " Die Pelasger " in Forschungen z. alien Geschichte (Halle, 1892), i. 124; W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (Cambridge, 1901), vol. i. ; J. L. Myres, " A History of the Pelasgian Theory " (in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxvii. 170); H. Marsh, Horae pelasgicae (Cambridge, 1815); L. Benloew, La Greet avant les Grecs (Paris, 1877). (J. L. M.) PELEUS, in Greek legend, king of the Myrmidones of Phthia in Thessaly, son of Aeacus, king of Aegina, and brother (or 66 PELEW ISLANDS— PELHAM (FAMILY) intimate friend) of Telamon. The two brothers, jealous of the athletic prowess of their step-brother Phocus, slew him; but the crime was discovered, and Peleus and Telamon were banished. Peleus took refuge in Phthia with his uncle Eurytion, who purified him from the guilt of murder, and gave him his daughter Antigone to wife, and a third of the kingdom as her dowry. Having accidentally killed his father-in-law at the Calydonian boar-hunt, Peleus was again obliged to flee, this time to lolcus, where he was purified by Acastus. The most famous event in the life of Peleus was his marriage with the sea-goddess Thetis, by whom he became the father of Achilles. The story ran that both Zeus and Poseidon had sought her hand, but, Themis (or Prometheus or Proteus) having warned the former that a son of Thetis by Zeus would prove mightier than his father, the gods decided to marry her to Peleus. Thetis, to escape a distasteful union, changed herself into various forms, but at last Peleus, by the instructions of Chiron, seized and held her fast till she resumed her original shape, and was unable to offer further resistance. The wedding (described in the fine Epilhalamium of Catullus) took place in Chiron's cave on Mt Pelion. Peleus survived both his son Achilles and his grandson Neoptolemus, and was carried away by Thetis to dwell for ever among the Nereids. See Apollodorus iii. 12, 13; Ovid, Metam. xi; Pindar, 'Isthmia, viii. 70, Nemea, iv. 101; Catullus, Ixiv.; schol. Apoll. Rhod. iv. 816; Euripides, Andromache, 1242-1260. PELEW ISLANDS (Ger. Palauinseln, also Palao), a group of twenty-six islands in the western Pacific Ocean, between 2° 35' and 9° N., and 130° 4' and 134° 40' E., belonging to Germany. They lie within a coral barrier reef, and in the south the islands are of coral, but in the north of volcanic rocks. They are well wooded, the climate is healthy, and the water-supply good. A few rats and bats represent the indigenous mammals, but the sea is rich in fish and molluscs; and Dr Otto Finsch (Journ. des Museum Godefroy, 1875) enumerated 56 species of birds, of which 12 are peculiar to the group. The total area is 175 sq. m., the largest islands being Babeltop (Babelthuap, Baobeltaob and other variants), Uruktapi (Urukthopel), Korror, Nyaur, Peleliu and Eilmalk (Irakong). The population is about 3100. The natives are Micronesians, and are darker and shorter than their kinsmen, the Caroline Islanders. They usually have the frizzly hair of the Melanesians, and paint their bodies in brilliant colours, especially yellow. The men vary in height from 5 ft. to 5 ft. 5 in., the women from 4 ft. 9 to 5 ft. 2 in. The skull shows a strong tendency to brachycephalism. Two curious customs may be noted — the institution of an honourable order bestowed by the king, called klilt; and a species of mutual aid society, sometimes confined to women, and possessing considerable political influ- ence. There are five kinds of currency in the islands, consisting of beads of glass and enamel, to which a supernatural origin is ascribed. The islands were sighted in 1543 by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, who named them the Arrecifos. The origin of the name Islas Palaos is doubtful. The islands were bought by Germany from Spain in 1899, and are administered together with the western Carolines, Yap being the administrative centre. See K. Semper, Die Palau-Inseln (Leipzig, 1873); J. S. Kubary, Die sozialen Einrichtungen der Palauer (Berlin, 1885) ; A. A. Marche, et Palouan (Paris, 1887). PELF, a term now chiefly used of money and always in a derogatory sense. The word originally meant plunder, pillage (O. Fr. Pelfre, probably from Lat. pilare, to deprive of hair, pilus), and this significance is still kept in the related word " pilfer," to make petty thefts. PELHAM, the name of an English farrfily, derived from Pelham in Hertfordshire, which was owned by a certain Walter de Pelham under Edward I., and is alleged to have been in the possession of the same family before the Norman conquest. The family dignities included the barony of Pelham of Laughton (1706-1768), the earldom of Clare (1714-1768), the dukedom of Newcastle (1715-1768), the barony of Pelham of Stanmer from 1762, the earldom of Chichester from 1801 and the earldom of Yarborough from 1837. JOHN DE PELHAM, who was one of the captors of John II. of France at Poitiers, acquired land at Winchelsea by his marriage with Joan Herbert, or Finch. His son, JOHN DE PELHAM (d. 1429), was attached to the party of John of Gaunt and his son Henry IV. In 1393 he received a life appointment as constable of Pevensey Castle, an honour subsequently extended to his heirs male, and he joined Henry on his invasion in 1399, if he did not actually land with him at Ravenspur. He was knighted at Henry's coronation, and represented Sussex in parliament repeatedly during the reign of Henry IV., and again in 1422 and 1427. As constable of Pevensey he had at different times the charge of Edward, duke of York, in 1405; Edmund, earl of March, with his brother Roger Mortimer in 1406; James I. of Scotland in 1414; Sir John Mortimer in 1422, and the queen dowager, Joan of Navarre, from 1418 to 1422. He was con- stantly employed in the defence of the southern ports against French invasion, and his powers were increased in 1407 by his appointment as chief butler of Chichester and of the Sussex ports, and in 1412 by the grant of the rape of Hastings. He was treasurer of England in 1412-1413, and although he was superseded on the accession of Henry V. he was sent in the next year to negotiate with the French court. He was included among the executors of the wills of Henry IV., of Thomas, duke of Clarence, and of Henry V. He died on the I2th of February 1429, and was succeeded by his son John, who took part in Henry V.'s expedition to Normandy in 1417. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth Sir WILLIAM PELHAM (c. 1530- 1587), third son of Sir William Pelham (d. 1538) of Laughton, Sussex, became lord justice of Ireland. He was captain of pioneers at the siege of Leith in 1560, and served at the siege of Havre in 1562, and with Coligny at Caen in 1563. He then returned to Havre, at that time occupied by English troops, and was one of the hostages for the fulfilment of its surrender to Charles IX. in 1564. After his return to England he fortified Berwick among other places, and was appointed lieutenant- general of ordnance. He was sent to Ireland in IS79, when he was knighted by Sir William Drury, the lord justice. Drury died in October, and Pelham was provisionally made his successor, an appointment subsequently confirmed by Elizabeth. Alarmed by the proceedings of Gerald Fitzgerald, i$th earl of Desmond, and his brother John Desmond, he proclaimed the earl a traitor. Elizabeth protested strongly against Pelham's action, which was justified by the sack of Youghal by Desmond. Thomas Butler, loth earl of Ormonde, was entrusted with the campaign in Munster, but Pelham joined him in February 1 580, when it was believed that a Spanish descent was about to be made in the south-west. The English generals laid waste northern Kerry, and proceeded to besiege Carrigafoyle Castle, which they stormed, giving no quarter to man, woman or child. Other strongholds submitted on learning the fate of Carrigafoyle, and were garrisoned by Pelham, who hoped with the concourse of Admiral Winter's fleet to limit the struggle to Kerry. He vainly sought help from the gentry of the county, who sym- pathized with Desmond, and were only brought to submission by a series of " drives." After the arrival of the new deputy, Lord Grey of Wilton, Pelham returned to England on the ground of health. He had retained his office as lieutenant-general of ordnance, and was now made responsible for debts incurred during his absence. Leicester desired his services in the Nether- lands, but it was only after much persuasion that Elizabeth set him free to join the army by accepting a mortgage on his estates as security for his liabilities. The favour shown by Leicester to Pelham caused serious jealousies among the English officers, and occasioned a camp brawl in which Sir Edward Norris was injured. Pelham was wounded at Doesburg in 1586, and accompanied Leicester to England in 1587. Returning to the Netherlands in the same year he died at Flushing on the 24th of November 1587. His half-brother, Sir Edmund Pelham (d. 1606), chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was the first English judge to go on circuit in Ulster. PELHAM, H.— PELIAS 67 Sir William married Eleanor, daughter of Henry Neville, earl of Westmorland, and was the ancestor of the Pelhams of Brocklesby, Lincolnshire. In the fourth generation Charles Pelham died in 1763 without heirs, leaving his estates to his great-nephew Charles Anderson (1749-1823), who thereupon assumed the additional name of Pelham, and was created Baron Yarborough in 1794. His son Charles (1781-1846), who was for many years commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron, was created earl of Yarborough and Baron Worsley in 1837. Charles Alfred Worsley, the 4th earl (b. 1859), exchanged the name of Anderson- Pelham for that of Pelham in 1905. He married in 1886 Marcia Lane-Fox, eldest daughter of the izth Baron Conyers, who became in 1892 Baroness Conyers in her own right. Sir NICHOLAS PELHAM (1517-1560), an elder half-brother of Sir William Pelham, defended Seaford against the French in 1545, and sat for Arundel and for Sussex in parliament. He was the ancestor of the earls of Chichester. His second son, Sir THOMAS PELHAM (d. 1 6 24) , was created a baronet in 1 6 1 1 . His descendant, Sir THOMAS PELHAM, 4th baronet (c. 1650-1712), represented successively East Grinstead, Lewes and Sussex in parliament, and was raised to the House of Lords as Baron Pelham of Laughton in 1706. By his second marriage with Grace (d. 1700), daughter of Gilbert Holies, 3rd earl of Clare, and sister of John Holies, duke of Newcastle, he had five daugh- ters, and two sons — Thomas Pelham, earl of Clare, duke of Newcastle-on-Tyne and ist duke of Newcastle-under-Lyme (see NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF), and Henry Pelham (q.v.Y The duke of Newcastle died without heirs, and the dukedom of Newcastle- under-Lyme descended to his nephew, Henry Fiennes Clinton, afterwards known as Pelham-Clinton, and his heirs, but the barony of Pelham of Laughton became extinct. In 1762 Newcastle had been created Baron Pelham of Stanmer, with reversion to his cousin and heir-male, THOMAS PELHAM (1728- 1805), who became commissioner of trade (1754), lord of the admiralty (1761-1764), comptroller of the household (1765- 1774), privy councillor (1765), surveyor-general of the customs of London (1773-1805), chief justice in eyre (1774-1775) and keeper of the wardrobe (1775-1782), and was created earl of Chichester in 1801. His third son, George (1766-1827), was successively bishop of Bristol, Exeter and Lincoln. THOMAS PELHAM, 2nd earl of Chichester (1756-1826), son of the ist earl, was surveyor-general of ordnance in Lord Rockingham's ministry (1782), and chief secretary for Ireland in the coalition ministry of 1783. In 1795 he became Irish chief secretary under Pitt's government, retiring in 1798; he was home secre- tary from July 1801 to August 1803 under Addington, who made him chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1803. Pelham went out of office in 1804, and in the next year succeeded to the earldom. He was joint postmaster-general from 1807 to 1823, and for the remaining three years of his life postmaster-general. His son and heir, HENRY THOMAS PELHAM (1804-1886), 3rd earl, was an ecclesiastical commissioner from 1850 until his death, and was greatly interested in various religious, philanthropic and educational movements; and two other sons were well-known men — Frederick Thomas Pelham (1808-1861), who became a rear-admiral in 1858, and subse- quently lord-commissioner of the admiralty, and John Thomas Pelham (1811-1894), who was bishop of Norwich from 1857 to 1893. The third earl's son, Walter John Pelham (1838-1892), succeeded his father in 1886, and his nephew Jocelyn Brudenell Pelham (b. 1871) became 6th earl of Chichester in 1905. PELHAM, HENRY (1696-1754), prime minister of England, younger brother of Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, was born in 1696. He was a younger son of Thomas, ist Baron Pelham of Laughton (1650-1712; cr. 1706) and of Lady Grace Holies, daughter of the 3rd earl of Clare (see above). He was educated by a private tutor and at Christ Church, Oxford, which he entered in July 1710. As a volunteer he served in Dormer's regiment at the battle of Preston in 1715, spent some time on the Continent, and in 1717 entered parliament for Seaford, Sussex. Through strong family influence and the recommendation of Walpole he was chosen in 1721 a lord of the Treasury. The following year he was returned for Sussex county. In 1724 he entered the ministry as secretary of war, but this office he exchanged in 1730 for the more lucrative one of paymaster of the forces. He made himself conspicuous by his support of Walpole on the question of the excise, and in 1743 a union of parties resulted in the formation of an adminis- tration in which Pelham was prime minister, with the office of chancellor of the exchequer; but rank and influence made his brother, the duke of Newcastle, very powerful in the cabinet, and, in spite of a genuine attachment, there were occasional disputes between them, which led to difficulties. Being strongly in favour of peace, Pelham carried on the war with languor and indifferent success, but the country, wearied of the interminable struggle, was disposed to acquiesce in his foreign policy almost without a murmur. The king, thwarted in his favourite schemes, made overtures in 1746 to Lord Bath, but his purpose was upset by the resignation of the two Pelhams (Henry and Newcastle), who, however, at the king's request, resumed office. Pelham remained prime minister till his death on the 6th of March 1754, when his brother succeeded him. His very defects were among the chief elements of Pelham's success, for one with a strong personality, moderate self-respect, or high conceptions of statesmanship could not have restrained the discordant elements of the cabinet for any length of time. Moreover, he possessed tact and a thorough acquaintance with the forms of the house. Whatever quarrels or insubordination might exist within the cabinet, they never broke out into open revolt. Nor can a high degree of praise be denied to his financial policy, especially his plans for the reduction of the national debt and the simplification and consolidation of its different branches. He had married in 1 726 Lady Catherine Manners, daughter of the 2nd duke of Rutland; and one of his daughters married Henry Fiennes Clinton, 2nd duke of Newcastle. See W. Coxe, Memoirs of the Pelham Administration. (2 vols., 1829). For the family history see Lower, Pelham Family (1873); also the Pelham and Newcastle MSS. in the British Museum. PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS (1846-1907), English scholar and historian, was born at Berg Apton, Norfolk, on the igth of September 1846, son of the Hon. John Thomas Pelham (1811-1894), bishop of Norwich, third son of the 2nd earl of Chichester. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Oxford, where he took a first class in literae humaniores in 1869. He was a tutor of Exeter College from 1869 to 1890. In 1887 he became university reader in ancient history, and two years later was elected to the Camden professorship. He became curator of the Bodleian library in 1892, and in 1897 president of Trinity College. He was also a fellow of Brasenose College, honorary fellow of Exeter, a fellow of the British Academy and of other learned societies, and a governor of Harrow School. His chief contribution to ancient history was his article on Roman history in the gth edition of the Encyclo- paedia Britannica (1886), which was republished with additions as the Outlines of Roman History (1890). His university lectures, though perhaps lacking in inspiration, were full of original research and learning. His death on the I3th of February 1907 not only prevented the publication in systematic form of his own important researches, but also delayed the appearance of much that had been left in MS. by H. Furneaux and A. H. J. Greenidge, and was at the time under his charge. Apart from the Outlines he published only The Imperial Domains and the Colonate (1890), The Roman Frontier System (1895), and articles in periodicals of which the most important was an article in the Quarterly Review on the early Caesars (April, 1905). He did much for the study of archaeology at Oxford, materially assisted the Hellenic Society and the British School at Athens, and was one of the founders of the British School at Rome. He married in 1873 Laura Priscilla, daughter of Sir Edward North Buxton. PELIAS, in Greek legend, son of Poseidon and Tyro, daughter of Salmoneus. Because Tyro afterwards married her father's brother Cretheus, king of lolcus in Thessaly, to whom she bore Aeson, Pheres and Amythaon, Pelias was by some thought to be 68 PELICAN— PELISSIER the son of Cretheus. He and his twin-brother Neleus were exposed by their mother, but were nurtured by a herdsman. When grown to manhood they were acknowledged by their mother. After the death of Cretheus, Pelias made himself master of the kingdom of lolous, having previously quarrelled with Neleus, who removed to Messenia, where he founded Pylos. In. order to rid himself of Jason, Pelias sent him to Colchis in quest of the golden fleece, and took advantage of his absence to put to death his father, Aeson, his mother and brother. When Jason returned he sought to avenge the death of his parents, and Medea persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut in pieces and boil their father, assuring them that he would thus be restored to youth. Acastus, son of Pelias, drove out Jason and Medea and celebrated funeral games in honour of his father, which were celebrated by the poet Stesichorus and represented on the chest of Cypselus. The death of Pelias was the subject of Sophocles' Rhizotomoi (Root-cutters), and in the Tyro he treated another portion of the legend. Peliades (the daughters of Pelias) was the name of Euripides' first play. PELICAN (Fr. Pelican; Lat. Pelecanus or Pdicanus), a large fish-eating water-fowl, remarkable for the enormous pouch formed by the extensible skin between the lower jaws of its long, and apparently formidable but in reality very weak, bill. The ordinary pelican, the Onocrotalus of the ancients, to whom it was well known, and the Pelecanus onocrotalus of ornithologists, is a very abundant bird in some districts of south-eastern Europe, south-western Asia and north-eastern Africa, occasionally straying, it is believed, into the northern parts of Germany and France; but the possibility of such wanderers having escaped from confinement is always to be regarded,1 since few zoological gardens are without examples. Its usual haunts are the shallow margins of the larger lakes and rivers, where fishes are plentiful, since it requires for its sustenance a vast supply of them. The nest is formed among reeds, placed on the ground and lined with grass. Therein two eggs, with white, chalky shells, are com- monly laid. The young during the first twelvemonth are of a greyish-brown, but when mature almost the whole plumage, except the black primaries, is white, deeply suffused by a rich blush of rose or salmon-colour, passing into yellow on the crest and lower part of the neck in front. A second and somewhat larger species, Pelecanus crispus, also inhabits Europe, but has a more eastern distribution. This, when adult, is readily dis- tinguishable from the ordinary bird by the absence of the blush from its plumage, and by the curled feathers that project from and overhang each side of the head, which with some difference of coloration of the bill, pouch, bare skin round the eyes and irides give it a wholly distinct expression. Two specimens of the humerus have been found in the English fens (Ibis, 1868, p. 363; Proc. Zool. Society, 1871, p. 702), thus proving the existence of the bird in England at no very distant period, and one of them being that of a young example points to its having been bred in this country. It is possible from their large size that they belonged to P. crispus. Ornithologists have been much divided in opinion as to the number of living species of the genus Pele- canus (cf. op. til., 1868, p. 264; 1869, p. 571; 1871, p. 631) — the estimate varying from six to ten or eleven; but the former is the number recognized by M. Dubois (Bull. Mus. de Belgique, 1883). North America has one, P. erythrorhynchus, very similar to P. onocrotalus both in appearance and habits, but remarkable for a triangular, horny excrescence developed on the ridge of the male's bill in the breeding season, which falls off without leaving trace of its existence when that is over. Australia has P. conspicillatus, easily distinguished by its black tail and wing- coverts. Of more marine habit are P. philippensis and P.fuscus, the former having a wide range in Southern Asia, and, it is said, reaching Madagascar, and the latter common on the coasts of the warmer parts of both North and South America. The genus Pelecanus as instituted by Linnaeus included the 1 This caution was not neglected by the prudent, even so long ago as Sir Thomas Browne's days; for he, recording the occurrence of a pelican in Norfolk, was careful to notice that about the same time one of the pelicans kept by the king (Charles II.) in St James's Park, had been lost. cormorant (q.v.) and gannet (q.v.) as well as the true pelicans, and for a long while these and some other distinct groups, as the snake-birds (q.v.), frigate-birds (q.v.) and tropic -birds (q.v.), which have all the four toes of the foot connected by a web, were regarded as forming a single family, Pelecanidae; but this name has now been restricted to the pelicans only, though all are still usually associated in the suborder Steganopodes of Ciconii- form birds. It may be necessary to state that there is no founda- tion for the venerable legend of the pelican feeding her young with blood from her own breast, which has given it an important place in ecclesiastical heraldry, except that, as A. D. Bartlett suggested (Proc. Zool. Society, 1869, p. 146), the curious bloody secretion ejected from the mouth of the flamingo may have given rise to the belief, through that bird having been mistaken for the " Pelican of the wilderness."2 (A. N.) PELION, a wooded mountain in Thessaly in the district of Magnesia, between Volo and the east coast. Its highest point (mod. Plessidi) is 5340 ft. It is famous in Greek mythology; the giants are said to have piled it on Ossa in order to scale Olympus, the abode of the gods; it was the home of the centaurs, especially of Chiron, who had a cave near its summit, and educated many youthful heroes; the ship " Argo " was built from its pine-woods. On its summit was an altar of Zeus Actaeus, in whose honour an annual festival was held in the dog-days, and worshippers clad themselves in skins. PELISSE (through the Fr. from Lat. pellicia: sc. veslis, a garment made of fur, pellis, skin), properly a name of a cloak made of or lined with fur, hence particularly used of the fur- trimmed " dolman " worn slung from the shoulders by hussar regiments. The word is now chiefly employed as the name of a long-sleeved cloak of any material worn by women and children. PEllSSIER, AIMABLE JEAN JACQUES (1794-1864), duke of Malakoff, marshal of France, was born on the 6th of November 1794 at Maromme (Seine Inferieure), of a family of prosperous artisans or yeoman, his father being employed in a powder- magazine. After attending the military college of La Fleche and the special school of St Cyr, he in 1815 entered the army as sub-lieutenant in an artillery regiment. A brilliant examination in 1819 secured his appointment to the staff. He served as aide-de-camp in the Spanish campaign of 1823, and in the expedition to the Morea in 1828-29. In 1830 he took part in the expedition to Algeria, and on his return was promoted to the rank of chef d'escadron. After some years' staff service in Paris he was again sent to Algeria as chief of staff of the province of Oran with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and remained there till the Crimean War, taking a prominent part in many important operations. The severity of his conduct in suffocating a whole Arab tribe in the Dahra or Dahna caves, near Mustaganem, where they had taken refuge (June 18, 1845), awakened such indig- nation in Europe that Marshal Soult, the minister of war, publicly expressed his regret; but Marshal Bugeaud, the governor-general of Algeria, not only gave it his approval, but secured for Pelissier the rank of general of brigade, which he held till 1850, when he was promoted general of division. After the battles of October and November 1854 before Sevastopol, Pelissier was sent to the Crimea, where on the i6th of May 1855 he succeeded Marshal Canrobert as commander-in-chief of the French forces before Sevastopol (see CRIMEAN WAR). His command was marked by relentless pressure of the enemy and unalterable determination to conduct the campaign without interference from Paris. His perseverance was crowned with 1 The legend was commonly believed in the middle ages. Epiphanius, bishop of Constantly, in his Physiologus (1588), writes that the female bird, in cherishing her young, wounds them with loving, and pierces their sides, and they die. After three days the male pelican comes and finds them dead, and his heart is pained. He smites his own side, and as he stands over the wounds of the dead young ones the blood trickles down, and thus are they made alive again. The pelican " in his piety "— -4.e. in this pious act of reviving his offspring — was a common subject for 15th-century emblem books; it became a symbol of self-sacrifice, a type of Christian redemption and of the Eucharistic doctrine. The device was adopted by Bishop Fox in 1516 for his new college of Corpus Christi, Oxford.— [H. CH.l PELL— PELLETAN 69 success in the storming of the Malakoff on the 8th of September. On the 1 2th he was promoted to be marshal. On his return to Paris he was named senator, created duke of Malakoff (July 22, 1856), and rewarded with a grant of 100,000 francs per annum. From March 1858 to May 1859 he was French ambassador in London, whence he was recalled to take command of the army of observation on the Rhine. In the same year he became grand chancellor of the Legion of Honour. In 1860 he was appointed governor-general of Algeria, and he died there on the 2 and of May 1864. See Marbaud, Le Marechal Pelissier (1863); Castillo, Portraits historiques, 2nd series (1859). PELL, JOHN (1610-1685), English mathematician, was born on the ist of March 1610 at Southwick in Sussex, where his father was minister. He was educated at Steyning, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen. During his university career he became an accomplished linguist, and even before he took his M.A. degree (in 1630) corresponded with Henry Briggs and other mathematicians. His great reputation and the influence of Sir William Boswell, the English resident, with the states-general procured his election in 1643 to the chair of mathematics in Amsterdam, whence he removed in 1646, on the invitation of the prince of Orange, to Breda, where he remained till 1652. From 1654 to 1658 Pell acted as Cromwell's political agent to the Protestant cantons of Switzerland. On his return to England he took orders and was appointed by Charles II. to the rectory of Fobbing in Essex, and in 1673 he was presented by Bishop Sheldon to the rectory of Laindon in the same county. His devotion to mathematical science seems to have interfered alike with his advancement in the Church and with the proper management of his private affairs. For a time he was confined as a debtor in the king's bench prison. He lived, on the invitation of Dr Whistler, for a short time in 1682 at the College of Physicians, but died on the I2th of December 1685 at the house of Mr Cothorne, reader of the church of St Giles-in-the Fields. Many of Pell's manuscripts fell into the hands of Dr Busby, master of Westminster School, and afterwards came into the possession of the Royal Society; they are still preserved in something like forty folio volumes, which contain, not only Pell's own memoirs, but much of his correspondence with the mathematicians of his time. The Diophantine analysis was a favourite subject with Pell; he lectured on it at Amsterdam; and he is now best remembered for the indeterminate equation ai2 + l=y2, which is known by his name. This problem was proposed by Pierre de Fermat first to Bernhard Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians. Pell's connexion with the problem simply consists of the publication of the solutions of John Wallis and Lord Brounker in his edition of Branker's Translation of Rhonius's Algebra (1668). His chief works are: Astronomical History of Observations of Heavenly Motions and Appearances (1634); Ediptica prognostica (1634); Controversy with Longomontanus concerning the Quadrature of the Circle (1646?); An Idea of the Matliematics, I2mo (1650); A Table of Ten Thousand Square Numbers (fol. ; 1672). PELLA, the capital of ancient Macedonia under Philip II. (who transferred the seat of government hither from Edessa) and Alexander the Great, who was born here. It seems to have retained some importance up to the time of Hadrian. Scanty remains exist and some springs in the neighbourhood are still known as the baths of Pel. The site (identified by Leake) is occupied by the village of Neochori (Turk. Yeni-Keui) about 32m. north-west of Salonika. PELLAGRA (Ital. pelle agra, smarting skin), the name given, from one of its early symptoms, to a peculiar disease, of com- paratively modern origin. For some time it was supposed to be practically confined to the peasantry in parts of Italy (particu- larly Lombardy) and France, and in the Asturias (mal de la rosa), Rumania and Corfu. But it has recently been identified in various outlying parts of the British Empire (Barbadoes, India) and in both Lower and Upper Egypt; also among the Zulus and Basutos. In the United States sporadic cases had been observed up to 1906, but since then numerous cases have been reported. It is in Italy, however, that it has been most prevalent. The malady is essentially chronic in character. The indications usually begin in the spring of the year, declining towards autumn, and recurring with increasing intensity and permanence in the spring seasons following. A peasant who is acquiring the malady feels unfit for work, suffers from head- aches, giddiness, singing in the ears, a burning of the skin, especially in the hands and feet, and diarrhoea. At the same time a red rash appears on the skin, of the nature of erysipelas, the red or livid spots being tense and painful, especially where they are directly exposed to the sun. About July or August of the first season these symptoms disappear, the spots on the skin remaining rough and dry. The spring attack of the year following will probably be more severe and more likely to leave traces behind it; with each successive year the patient becomes more like a mummy, his skin shrivelled and sallow, or even black at certain spots, as in Addison's disease, his angles pro- truding, his muscles wasted, his movements slow and languid, and his sensibility diminished. Meanwhile there are more special symptoms relating to the nervous system, including drooping of the eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and other disorders of vision, together with symptoms relating to the digestive system, such as a red and dry tongue, a burning feeling in the mouth, pain on swallowing, and diarrhoea. After a certain stage the disease passes into a profound disorganization of the nervous system; there is a tendency to melancholy, imbecility, and a curious mummified condition of body. After death a general tissue degeneration is observed. The causation of this obscure disease has recently come up for new investigation in connexion with the new work done in relation to sleeping-sickness and other tropical diseases. So long as it was supposed to be peculiar to the Italian peasantry, it was associated simply with their staple diet, and was regarded as due to the eating of mouldy maize. It was by his views in this regard that Lombroso (q.v.) first made his scientific reputa- tion. But the area of maize consumption is now known to be wider than that of pellagra, and pellagra is found where maize is at least not an ordinary diet. In 1905 Dr L. W. Sambon, at the meeting of the British Medical Association, suggested that pellagra was probably protozoal in origin, and subsequently he announced his belief that the protozoon was communicated by sand-flies, just as sleeping-sickness by the tsetse fly; and this opinion was supported by the favourable action of arsenic in the treatment of the disease. His hypothesis was endorsed by Sir Patrick Manson, and in January 1910 an influential committee was formed, to enable Dr Sambon to pursue his investigations in a pellagrous area. PELLETAN, CHARLES CAMILLE (1846- ), French politician and journalist, was born in Paris on the 28th of June 1846, the son of Eugene Pelletan (1813-1884), a writer of some distinction and a noted opponent of the Second Empire. Camille Pelletan was educated in Paris, passed as licentiate in laws, and was qualified as an " archiviste paleographe." At the age of twenty he became an active contributor to the press, and a bitter critic of the Imperial Government. After the war of 1870-71 he took a leading place among the most radical section of French politicians, as an opponent of the " opportunists " who continued the policy of Gambetta. In 1880 he became editor of Justice, and worked with success to bring about a revision of the sentences passed on the Communards. In 1881 he was chosen member for the tenth arrondissement of Paris, and in 1885 for the Bouches du Rhone, being re-elected in 1889, 1893 and 1898; and he was repeatedly chosen as " reporter " to the various bureaus. Dur- ing the Nationalist and Dreyfus agitations he fought vigorously on behalf of the Republican government and when the coalition known as the "Bloc" was formed he took his place as a Radical leader. He was made minister of marine in the cabinet of M. Combes, June 1902 to January 1905, but his administration was severely criticized, notably by M. de Lanessan and other naval experts. During the great sailors' strike at Marseilles in 1904 he showed pronounced sympathy with the socialistic aims and methods of the strikers, and a strong feeling was aroused that PELLICANUS— PELLICO his Radical sympathies tended to a serious weakening of the navy and to destruction of discipline. A somewhat violent controversy resulted, in the course of which M. Pelletan's indiscreet speeches did him no good; and he became a common subject for ill-natured caricatures. On the fall of the Combes ministry he became less prominent in French politics. PELLICANUS, CONRAD (1478-1556), German theologian, was born at Ruffach in Alsace, on the 8th of January 1478. His German name, Kursner, was changed to Pellicanus by his mother's brother Jodocus Gallus, an ecclesiastic connected with the university of Heidelberg, who supported his nephew for sixteen months at the university in 1491-1492. On returning to Ruffach, he taught gratis in the Minorite convent school that he might borrow books from the library, and in his sixteenth year resolved to become a friar. This step helped his studies, for he was sent to Tubingen in 1496 and became a favourite pupil of the guardian of the Minorite convent there, Paulus Scriptoris, a man of considerable general learning. There seems to have been at that time in south-west Germany a considerable amount of sturdy independent thought among the Franciscans; Pellicanus himself became a Protestant very gradually, and without any such revulsion of feeling as marked Luther's conversion. At Tubingen the future " apostate in three languages " was able to begin the study of Hebrew. He had no teacher and no grammar; but Paulus Scriptoris carried him a huge codex of the prophets on his own shoulders all the way from Mainz. He learned the letters from the transcription of a few verses in the Star of the Messiah of Petrus Niger, and, with a subsequent hint or two from Reuchlin, who also lent him the grammar of Moses Kimhl, made his way through the Bible for himself with the help of Jerome's Latin. He got on so well that he was not only a useful helper to ReuchHn but anticipated the manuals of the great Hebraist by composing in 1501 the first Hebrew grammar in the European tongue. It was printed in 1503, and afterwards included in Reysch's Margarita philosophica. Hebrew remained a favourite study to the last. Pellican's autobiography de- scribes the gradual multiplication of accessible books on the subjects, and he not only studied but translated a vast mass of rabbinical and Talmudic texts, his interest in Jewish literature being mainly philological. The chief fruit of these studies is the vast commentary on the Bible (Zurich, 7 vols., 1532-1539), which shows a remarkably sound judgment on questions of the text, and a sense for historical as opposed to typological exegesis. Pellicanus became priest in 1501 and continued to serve his order at Ruffach, Pforzheim, and Basel till 1526. At Basel he did much laborious work for Froben's editions, and came to the conclusion that the Church taught many doctrines of which the early doctors of Christendom knew nothing. He spoke his views frankly, but he disliked polemic; he found also more toleration than might have been expected, even after he became active in circulating Luther's books. Thus, supported by the civic authorities, he remained guardian of the convent of his order at Basel from 1519 till 1524, and even when he had to give up his post, remained in the monastery for two years, professing theology in the university. At length, when the position was becoming quite untenable, he received through Zwingli a call to Zurich as professor of Greek and Hebrew, and formally throwing off his monk's habit, entered on a new life. Here he remained till his death on the 6th of April 1556. Pellicanus's scholarship, though not brilliant, was really extensive; his sound sense, and his singularly pure and devoted character gave him a great influence. He was remarkably free from the pedantry of the time, as is shown by his views about the use of the German vernacular as a vehicle of culture (Chron. I3S> 36). As a theologian his natural affinities were with Zwingli, with whom he shared the advantage of having grown up to the views of the Reformation, by the natural progress of his studies and religious life. Thus he never lost his sym- pathy with humanism and with its great German representative, Erasmus. Pellicanus's Latin autobiography (Chronicon C.P.R.) is one of the most interesting documents of the period. It was first published by Riggenbach in 1877, and in this volume the other sources for his life are registered. See also Emil Silberstein, Conrad Pellicanus; ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Studiums der hebr. Sprache (Berlin, 1900). PELLICIER, GUILLAUME (c. 1490-1568), French prelate and diplomatist, was educated by his uncle, the bishop of Maguelonne, whom he succeeded in 1529. In 1536 he had the seat of his bishopric transferred to Montpellier. Appointed ambassador at Venice in 1539, he fulfilled his mission to the entire satisfaction of Francis I., but on the discovery of the system of espionage he had employed the king had to recall him in 1542. Returning to his diocese, he was imprisoned in the chateau of Beaucaire for his tolerance of the Reformers, so he replaced his former indulgence by severity, and the end of his episcopate was disturbed by religious struggles. He was a man of wide learning, a humanist and a friend of humanists, and took a keen interest in the natural sciences. See].2£l\er,LaDiplomatiefranc,aise . . . d'apres le correspondence de G. Pellicier (Paris, 1881); and A. Tausserat-Radel, Correspondance politique de Guillaume Pellicier (Paris, 1899). PELLICO, SILVIO (1788-1854), Italian dramatist, was born at Saluzzo in Piedmont on the 24th of June 1788, the earlier portion of his life being passed at Pinerolo and Turin under the tuition of a priest named Manavella. At the age of ten he composed a tragedy under the inspiration of Caesarotti's translation of the Ossianic poems. On the marriage of his twin sister Rosina with a maternal cousin at Lyons he went to reside in that city, devoting himself during four years to the study of French literature. He returned in 1810 to Milan, where he became professor of French in the Collegio degli Orfani Militari. His tragedy Francesca da Rimini, was brought out with success by Carlotta Marchionni at Milan in 1818. Its publication was followed by that of the tradegy Eitfemio da Messina, but the representation of the latter was forbidden. Pellico had in the meantime continued his work as tutor, first to the unfortunate son of Count Briche, and then to the two sons of Count Porro Lambertenghi. He threw himself heartily into an attempt to weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educa- tional means. Of the powerful literary executive which gathered about Counts Porro and Confalonieri, Pellico was the able secretary — the management of the Conciliatore, which appeared in 1818 as the organ of the association, resting largely upon him. But the paper, under the censorship of the Austrian officials, ran for a year only, and the society itself was broken up by the government. In October 1820 Pellico was arrested on the charge of carbonarism and conveyed to the Santa Margherita prison. After his removal to the Piombi at Venice in February 1821, he composed several Cantiche and the tragedies Ester d'En- gaddi and Iginia d'Asti. The sentence of death pronounced on him in February 1822 was finally commuted to fifteen years carcere duro, and in the following April he was placed in the Spielberg at Briinn. His chief work during this part of his imprisonment was the tragedy Leoniero da Derlona, for the preservation of which he was compelled to rely on his memory. After his release in 1830 he commenced the publication of his prison compositions, of which the Ester was played at Turin in 1831, but immediately suppressed. In 1832 appeared his Gismonda da Mendrizio, Erodiade and the Leoniero, under the title of Tre nuovi tragedie, and in the same year the work which gave him his European fame, Le Mie prigioni, an account of his sufferings in prison. The last gained him the friendship of the Marchesa di Barolo, the reformer of the Turin prisons, and in 1834 he accepted from her a yearly pension of 1200 francs. His tragedy Tommaso Moro had been published in 1833, his most important subsequent publication being the Opere inedite in 1837. On the decease of his parents in 1838 he was received into the Casa Barolo, where he remained till his death, assisting the marchesa in her charities, and writing chiefly upon religious themes. Of these works the best known is the Dei Doveri degli uomini, a series of trite maxims which do honour to his piety rather than to his critical judgment. A fragmentary biography of the marchesa by Pellico was published in Italian and English after her death. He died on the 3ist of January 1854, and was PELLISSON— PELOPONNESIAN WAR buried in the Campo Santo at Turin. His writings are defective in virility and breadth of thought, and his tragedies display neither the insight into character nor the constructive power of a great dramatist. It is in the simple narrative and naive egotism of Le Mie prigioni that he has established his strongest claim to remembrance, winning fame by his misfortunes rather than by his genius. See Piero Maroncelli, Addizioni alle mie prigioni (Paris, 1834); the biographies by Latour; Gabriele Rosselli ; Didier, Revue des deux mondes (September 1842) ; De Lomenie, Galerie des contemp. illustr. iv. (1842); Chiala (Turin, 1852); Nollet-Fabert (1854); Giorgio Briano (1854); Bourdon (1868); Rivieri (1899-1901). PELLISSON, PAUL (1624-1693), French author, was born at B6ziers on the 3oth of October 1624, of a distinguished Calvinist family. He studied law at Toulouse, and practised at the bar of Castres. Going to Paris with letters of introduction to Valentin Conrart, who was a co-religionist, he became through him acquainted with the members of the academy. Pellisson undertook to be their historian, and in 1653 published a Relation contenant I'histoire de I'academie franfaise. This panegyric was rewarded by a promise of the next vacant place and by permission to be present at their meetings. In 1657 Pellisson became secretary to the minister of finance, Nicolas Fouquet, and when in 1661 the minister was arrested, his secretary was imprisoned in the Bastille. Pellisson had the courage to stand by his fallen patron, in whose defence he issued his celebrated Memoir e in 1661, with the title Discours au roi, par un de ses fideles sujets sur le proces de M. de Fouquet, in which the facts in favour of Fouquet are marshalled with great skill. Another pamphlet, Seconde defense de M. Fouquet, followed. Pellisson was released in 1666, and from this date sought the royal favour. He became historiographer to the king, and in that capacity wrote a fragmentary Histoire de Louis XIV., covering the years 1660 to 1670. In 1670 he was converted to Catholicism and obtained rich ecclesiastical preferment. He died on the 7th of February 1693. He was very intimate with Mile de Scudery, in whose novels he figures as Herminius and Acante. His sterling worth of character made him many friends and justified Bussy-Rabutin's description of him as " encore plus honnete homme que bel esprit." See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv. ; and F. L. Marcon, £tude sur la vie el les ceuvres de Pellisson (1859). PELLITORY, in botany, the common name for a small hairy perennial herb which grows on old walls, bedgebanks and similar localities, and is known botanically as Parietaria offici- nalis (Lat. paries, a wall). It has a short woody rootstock from which spring erect or spreading stems i to 2 ft. long, bearing slender leafy branches, and axillary clusters of small green flowers. It belongs to the nettle order (Urticaceae), and is nearly allied to the nettle, Urtica, but its hairs are not stinging. PELLOUX, LUIGI (1830- ), Italian general and politician, was born on the ist of March 1839, at La Roche, in Savoy, of parents who retained their Italian nationality when Savoy was annexed to France. Entering the army as lieutenant of artillery in 1857, he gained the medal for military valour at the battle of Custozza in 1866, and in 1870 commanded the brigade of artillery which battered the breach in the wall of Rome at Porta Pia. He was elected to the Chamber in 1881 as deputy for Leghorn, which he represented until 1895, and joined the party of the Left. He had entered the war office in 1870, and in 1880 became general secretary, in which capacity he introduced many useful reforms in the army. After a succession of high military commands he received the appointment of chief of the general staff in 1896. He was minister of war in the Rudini and Giolitti cabinets of 1891-1893. In July 1896 he resumed the portfolio of war in the Rudini cabinet, and was appointed senator. In May 1897 he secured the adoption of the Army Reform Bill, fixing Italian military expenditure at a maximum of £9,560,000 a year, but in December of that year he was defeated in the Chamber on the question of the promotion of officers. Resigning office, he was in May 1898 sent as royal commissioner to Bari, where, without recourse to martial law, he succeeded in restoring public order. Upon the fall of Rudini in June 1898, General Pelloux was entrusted by King Humbert with the formation of a cabinet, and took for himself the post of minister of the interior. He resigned office in May 1899, but was again en- trusted with the formation of the ministry. He took stern measures against the revolutionary elements in southern Italy, and his new cabinet was essentially military and conservative. The Public Safety Bill for the reform of the police laws, taken over by him from the Rudini cabinet, and eventually promul- gated by royal decree, was fiercely obstructed by the Socialist party, which, with the Left and Extreme Left, succeeded in forcing General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900, and to resign office after the general election in June. In the autumn of 1901 he was appointed to the command of the Turin army corps. PELOMYXA, so named by R. Greeff, a genus of Lobose Rhizopoda (q.v.), naked, multinucleate, with very blunt rounded pseudopodia, formed by eruption (see AMOEBA), often containing peculiar vesicles (glycogen?), and full of a symbiotic bacterium. It inhabits the ooze of decomposing organic matter at the bottom of ponds and lakes. PELOPIDAS (d. 364 B.C.), Theban statesman and general. He was a member of a distinguished family, and possessed great wealth which he expended on his friends, while content to lead the life of an athlete. In 385 B.C. he served in a Theban contingent sent to the support of the Spartans at Mantineia, where he was saved, when dangerously wounded, by Epami- nondas (q.v.}. Upon the seizure of the Theban citadel by the Spartans (383 or 382) he fled to Athens, and took the lead in a conspiracy to liberate Thebes. In 379 his party surprised and killed their chief political opponents, and roused the people against the Spartan garrison, which surrendered to an army gathered by Pelopidas. In this and subsequent years he was elected boeotarch, and about 375 he routed a much larger Spartan force at Tegyra (near Orchomenus). This victory he owed mainly to the valour of the Sacred Band, a picked body of 300 infantry. At the battle of Leuctra (371) he contributed greatly to the success of Epaminondas's new tactics by the rapidity with which he made the Sacred Band close with the Spartans. In 370 he accompanied his friend Epaminondas as boeotarch into Peloponnesus. On their return both generals were unsuc- cessfully accused of having retained their command beyond the legal term. In 369, in response to a petition of the Thessa- lians, Pelopidas was sent with an army against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae. After driving Alexander out, he passed into Macedonia and arbitrated between two claimants to the throne. In order to secure the influence of Thebes, he brought home hostages, including the king's brother, afterwards Philip II., the conqueror of Greece. Next year Pelopidas was again called upon to interfere in Macedonia, but, being deserted by his mercenaries, was compelled to make an agreement with Ptolemaeus of Alorus. On his return through Thessaly he was seized by Alexander of Pherae, and two expeditions from Thebes were needed to secure his release. In 367 Pelopidas went on an embassy to the Persian king and induced him to prescribe a settlement of Greece according to the wishes of the Thebans. In 364 he received another appeal from the Thessalian towns against Alexander of Pherae. Though an eclipse of the sun prevented his bringing with him more than a handful of troops, he overthrew the tyrant's far superior force on the ridge of Cynoscephalae; but wishing to slay Alexander with his own hand, he rushed forward too eagerly and was cut down by the tyrant's guards. Plutarch and Nepos, Pelopidas; Diodorus xv. 62-81; Xenophon, Hellenica, vii. I. See also THEBES. (M. O. B. C.) PELOPONNESIAN WAR, in Greek history, the name given specially to the struggle between Athens at the head of the Delian League and the confederacy of which Sparta was the leading power.1 According to Thucydides the war, which was 1 Some historians prefer to call it the Second Peloponnesian War, the first being that of 457, which ended with the Thirty Years' Peace. PELOPONNESIAN WAR in his view the greatest that had ever occurred in Greece, lasted from 431 to the downfall of Athens in 404. The genius of Thucydides has given to the struggle the importance of an epoch in world history, but his view is open to two main criti- cisms— (i) that the war was in its ultimate bearings little more than a local disturbance, viewed from the standpoint of universal history; (2) that it cannot be called a war in the strict sense. The former of these criticisms is justified in the article on GREECE: History (q.v.). Unless we are to believe that the Macedonian supremacy is directly traceable to the mutual weakening of the Greek cities in 431-403, it is difficult to see what lasting importance attaches to the war. As regards the second, a few chief difficulties may be indicated. The very narrative even of Thucydides himself shows that the " war " was not a connected whole. It may be divided into three main periods — (i) from 431 to 421 (Lysias calls it the " Archidamian " War), when the Peace of Nicias, not merely formally, but actually produced a cessation of hostilities; (2) from 421 till the inter- vention of Sparta in the Sicilian War; during these years there was no " Peloponnesian War," and there were several years in which there was in reality no fighting at all: the Sicilian expedi- tion was in fact a side issue; (3) from 413 to 404, when fighting was carried on mainly in the Aegean Sea (Isocrates calls this the " Decelean " War). The disjointed character of the struggle is so obvious from Thucydides himself that historians have come to the conclusion that the idea of treating the whole struggle as a single unit was ex post facto (see GREECE: History, § A, " Ancient " ad fin.). The book itself affords evidence which goes far to justify this view. A very important problem is presented by bk. v., which is obviously put in as a connecting link to prove a theory. Thucy- dides expressly warns us not to regard the period of this book as one of peace, and yet the very contents of the book refute his argument. In 419 and 417 there is practically no fighting: the Mantinean War of 418 is a disconnected episode which did not lead to a resumption of hostilities: in 420 there are only obscure battles in Thrace: in 416 there is only the expedition to Melos; and finally from 421 to 413 there is official peace. Other details may be cited in corroboration. Book v. (ch. 26) contains a second introduction to the subject; 65€ 6 ir6Xe/io$ in i. 23 and iv. 48 is the Archidamian or Ten Years' War; in v. 26 we read of a irptoros iroXe/jos, a uorepos TroXe^os and an a.va.Kux'h- Some critics think on these and other grounds that Thucydides wrote and published bks. i.-v. 25 by itself, then bks. vi. and vii. (Sicilian expedition), and finally revising his view joined them into one whole by the somewhat unsatisfactory bk. v. 26 and following chapters, and began to round off the story with the incomplete bk. viii. (on this see GREECE: History, as above). It is perhaps most probable that he retained notes made con- temporarily and worked them up some time after 404, in a few passages failing to correct inconsistencies and dying before bk. viii. was completed. The general introduction in bk. i. was unquestionably written shortly after 404. The causes of the war thus understood are complex. The view taken by Thucydides that Sparta was the real foe of Athens has been much modified by modern writers. The key to the situation is in fact the commercial rivalry of the Corin- thians, whose trade (mainly in the West) had been seriously limited by the naval expansion of the Delian League. This rivalry was roused to fever heat by the Athenian intervention in 434-33 on behalf of Corcyra, Corinth's rebellious colony (see CORFU) and from that time the Corinthians felt that the Thirty Years' Truce was at an end. An opportunity soon offered for making a counter attack. Potidaea, a Dorian town on the western promontory of Chalcidice in Thrace, a tributary ally of Athens — to which however Corinth as metropolis still sent annual magistrates — was induced to revolt,1 with the support of the Macedonian king Perdiccas, formerly an Athenian ally. The Athenian Phormio succeeded in blockading the city so that 1 The importance of this revolt lay in the fact that it immediately involved danger to Athens throughout the Chalcidic promontories, and her north-east possessions generally. its capture was merely a question of time, and this provided the Corinthians with an urgent reason for declaring war. Prior to these episodes Athens had not been in hostile contact with any of the Peloponnesian confederate states for more than ten years, and Pericles had abandoned a great part of his imperial policy. He now laid an embargo upon Megara by which the Megarians were forbidden on pain of death to pursue trading operations with any part of the Athenian Empire. The circum- stances of this decree (or decrees) are not material to the present argument (see Grote, History of Greece, ed. 1907, p. 370 note) except that it turned special attention to the commercial supremacy which Athens claimed to enjoy. In 432 a conference of Peloponnesian allies was summoned and the Corinthian envoys urged the Spartans to declare war on the ground that the power of Athens was becoming so great as to constitute a danger to the other states. This might have been urged with justice before the Thirty Years' Truce (447) ; but by that truce Athens gave up all her conquests in Greece proper except Naupactus and Plataea, while her solitary gains in Amphipolis and Thurii were compensated by other losses. The fact that the Corinthian argument failed to impress Sparta and many of the delegates is shown by the course of the debate. What finally impelled the Spartans to agree to the war was the veiled threat by the Corinthians that they would be driven into another alliance (i.e. Argos, i. 71). We can hardly regard Sparta as the deter- mined enemy of Athens at this time. Only twice since 461 had she been at war with Athens — in 457 (Tanagra) and 447, when she deliberately abstained from pushing the advantage which the revolt in Euboea provided; she had refused to help the oli- garchs of Samos in 440. Corinth however had not only strong, but also immediate and urgent reasons (Potidaea and Corcyra) for desiring war. It has been argued that the war was ulti- mately a struggle between the principles of oligarchy and democracy. This view, however, cannot be taken of the early stages of the war when there was democracy and oligarchy on both sides (see ad fin.) ; it is only in the later stages that the political difference is prominent. The Opposing Forces. — The permanent strength of the Peloponnesian confederacy lay in the Peloponnesian states, all of which except Argos and Achaea were united under Sparta's leadership. But it included also extra-Peloponnesian states — viz. Megara, Phocis, Boeotia and Locris (which had formed part of the Athenian land empire), and the maritime colonies round the Ambracian Gulf. The organization was not elaborate. The federal assembly with few exceptions met only in time of war, and then only when Sparta agreed to summon it. It met in Sparta and the delegates, having stated their views before the Spartan Apella, withdrew till the Apella had come to a decision. The delegates were then invited to return and to confirm that decision. It is clear that the link was purely one of common interest, and that Sparta had little or no control over, e.g. so powerful a confederate as Corinth. Sparta was the chief member of the confederacy (hegemon), but the states were autonomous. In time of war each had to provide two-thirds of its forces, and that state in whose territory the war was to take place had to equip its whole force. The Athenian Empire is described elsewhere (DELIAN LEAGUE, ATHENS). Here it must suffice to point out that there was among the real and technical allies no true bond of interest, and that many of the states were in fact bound by close ties to members of the Peloponnesian confederacy (e.g. Potidaea to Corinth). Sparta could not only rely on voluntary co-operation but could undermine Athenian influence by posing as the champion of autonomy. Further, Thucydides is wrong on his own showing in saying that Sparta refused to tolerate democratic government in confederate cities: it was not till after 418 that this policy was adopted. Athens, on the other hand, had un- doubtedly interfered in the interest of democracy in various allied states (see DELIAN LEAGUE). No detailed examination of the comparative military and naval resources of the combatants can here be attempted. On land the Peloponnesians were superior: they had at least 30,000 PELOPONNESIAN WAR 73 hoplites not including 10,000 from Central Greece and Boeotia: these soldiers were highly trained. The Athenian army was undoubtedly smaller. There has been considerable discussion as to the exact figures, the evidence in Thucydides being highly confusing, but it is most probable that the available fighting force was not more than half that of the Peloponnesian confed- eracy. Even of these we learn (Thuc. iii. 87) that 4400 died in the great plague. The only light-armed force was that of Boeotia at Delium (10,000 with 500 peltasts). Of cavalry Athens had looo, Boeotia a similar number. The only other cavalry force was that of Thessaly, which, had it been loyal to Athens, would have meant a distinct superiority. In naval power the Athenians undoubtedly had an overwhelming advantage at the beginning, both in numbers and in training. Financially Athens had an enormous apparent advantage. She began with a revenue of 1000 talents (including 600 from e scheme, which probably originated with the atticizing party in Yhebes, resulted in the severe defeat of Hippocrates at Delium by U e, Boeotians under Pagondas, and was a final blow to the policy of, an Athenian land empire. The. e disasters at Megara, Amphipolis and Delium left Athens withonJy one trump card — the possession of the Spartan hoplites captured in Sphacteria. This solitary success had already in the spring of 423 induced Sparta in spite of the successes which Brasidas was achieving in Thrace to accept the " truce of Laches " — which, however, was rendered abortive by the refusal of Brasidas to. surrender Scione. The final success of Brasidas at Amphipolis, where both he and Cleon were killed, paved the way for a more permanent agreement, the peace parties at Athens and Sparta being in the ascendant. 2. From 421 to 41,3. — Peace was signed in March 421 on the basis of each side's Surrendering what had been acquired by the war, not including those cities which had been acquired by capitulation. It was to last for fifty yeais. Its weak points, however, were numerous. Whereas Sparta had been least of all the allies interested in the war, and apart from the campaigns of Brasidas had on the whole taken little part in it, her allies benefited least by the terms of the Peace. Corinth did not regain Sollium and Anactorium, while Megara and Thebes respectively were indignant that Athens should retain Nisaea and receive Panactum. These and other reasons rapidly led to the isolation of Sparta, and there was a general refusal to carry out the terms of agreement. The history of the next three years is therefore one of complex inter-state intrigues combined with internal political convulsions. In 421 Sparta and Athens concluded a defensive alliance; the Sphacterian captives were released and Athens promised to abandon Pylos. Such a peace, giving Sparta everything and Athens nothing but Sparta's bare alliance, was due to the fact that Nicias and Alcibiades were both seeking Sparta's friendship. At this time the Fifty Years' Truce between Sparta and Argos was expiring. The Peloponnesian malcontents turned to Argos as a new leader, and an alliance was formed between Argos, Corinth, Elis, Mantinea and the Thraceward towns (420). This coalition between two different elements — an anti-oligarchic party and a war party — had no chance of permanent existence. The war party in Sparta regained its strength under new ephors and negotiations began for an alliance between Sparta, Argos and Boeotia. The details cannot here be discussed. The result was a re-shuffling of the cards. The democratic states of the Peloponnese were driven, partly by the intrigues of Alcibiades, now anti-Laconian, into alliance with Athens, with the object of establishing a democratic Peloponnese under the leadership of Argos. These unstable combinations were soon after upset by Alcibiades himself, who, having succeeded in displacing Nicias as strategus in 419, allowed Athenian troops to help in attacking Epidaurus. For a cause not easy to determine Alcibiades was defeated by Nicias in the election to the post of strategus in the next year, and the suspicions of the Pelopon- nesian coalition were roused by the inadequate assistance sent by Athens, which arrived too late to assist Argos when the Spartan king Agis marched against it. Ultimately the Spartans were successful over the coalition at Mantinea, and soon afterwards an oligarchic revolution at Argos led to an alliance between that city and Sparta (c. Feb. 417). This oligarchy was overthrown again in June, and the new democracy having vainly sought an agreement with Sparta rejoined Athens. It was thus left to Athens to expend men and money on protecting a democracy by the aid of which she had hoped practically to control the Peloponnesus. All this time, however, the alliance between her and Sparta was not officially broken. The unsatisfactory character of the Athenian Peloponnesian coalition was one of the negative causes which led up to the Sicilian Expedition of 415. Another negative cause may be found in the failure of an attempt or attempts to subdue the Thraceward towns. By combining the evidence of Plutarch (in his comparison of Nicias and Crassus), Thuc. v. 83, and the in- scription which gives the treasury payments for 418-415 (Hicks and Hill, Gr. Hist. Inscr. 70), we can scarcely doubt that there were expeditions in 4-18 (Euthydemus) and the summer of 417 (Nicias), and that in the winter of 417 a blockading squadron under Chaeremon was despatched. This policy — which was presumably that of Nicias in opposition to Alcibiades— having failed, the way was cleared for a reassertion of that policy of western conquest which had always had advocates from Themistocles onward in Athens,1 and was part of the democratic programme. The tragic fiasco of the Sicilian expedition, involving the death 1 In 454 Athens made a treaty with Segesta (inscr. Hicks and Hill, Greek Hist. Inscr. 34) : in 433 with Rhegium and Leontini (Hicks and Hill, 51 and 52; cf. Thuc. iii. 86, ira\ai& avunaxia with Chalcidic towns in Sicily) : in 444 the colony of Thurii was founded: in 427 (see above) 60 ships were sent to Sicily; and if we may believe Aristophanes (Eq. 1302) Hyperbolus asked for too triremes for Carthage. PELOPONNESIAN WAR 75 of Nicias and the loss of thousands of men and hundreds of ships, was a blow from which Athens never recovered (see under SYRACUSE and SICILY). Even before the final catastrophe the Spartans had reopened hostilities. On the advice of Alcibiades (q.i>.), exiled from Athens in 415, they had fortified Decelea in Attica within fifteen miles of Athens. This place not only served as a permanent headquarters for predatory expeditions, but cut off the revenue from the Laurium mines, furnished a ready asylum for runaway slaves, and rendered the transference of supplies from Euboea considerably more difficult (i.e. by the sea round Cape Sunium). Athens thus entered upon the third stage of the conflict with exceedingly poor prospects. 3. The Ionian or Dccelean War. — From the Athenian stand- point this war may be broken up into three periods: (i) period of revolt of allies (413-411), (2) the rally (410-408), (3) the relapse (407-404). As contrasted with the Archidamian War, this war was fought almost exclusively in the Aegean Sea, the enemy was primarily Sparta, and the deciding factor was Persian gold. Furthermore, apart from the gradual disintegration of the empire, Athens was disturbed by political strife. In 412 many Ionian towns revolted, and appealed either to Agis at Decelea or to Sparta direct. Euboea, Lesbos, Chios, Erythrae led the way in negotiation and revolt, and simul- taneously the court of Susa instructed the satraps Pharnabazus and Tissaphernes to renew the collection of tribute from the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The satraps likewise made over- tures to Sparta. The revolt of the Ionian allies was due in part to Alcibiades also, whose prompt action in co-operation with his friend the ephor Endius finally confirmed the Chian oligarchs in their purpose. In 411 a treaty was signed by Sparta and Tissaphernes against Athens: the treaty formally surrendered to the Persian king all territory which he or his predecessors had held. It was subsequently renewed in a form somewhat less disgraceful to Greek patriotism by the Spartans Astyochus and Theramenes. On the other hand, a democratic rising in Samos prevented the rebellion of that island, which for the remainder of the war was invaluable to Athens as a stronghold lying between the two great centres of the struggle. After the news of the Sicilian disaster Athens was compelled at last to draw on the reserve of 1000 talents which had lain untouched in the treasury.1 The revolt of the Ionian allies, and (in 411) the loss of the Hellespontine, Thracian and Island tributes (see DELIAN LEAGUE), very seriously crippled her finances. On the other hand, Tissaphernes undertook to pay the Peloponnesian sailors a daily wage of one Attic drachma (afterwards reduced to 2 drachma). In Attica itself Athens lost Oenoe and Oropus, and by the end of 411 only one quarter of the empire remained. In the meanwhile Tissaphernes began to play a double game with the object of wasting the strength of the combatants. Moreover Alcibiades lost the confidence of the Spartans and passed over to Tissaphernes, at whose disposal he placed his great powers of diplomacy, at the same time scheming for his restoration to Athens. He opened negotiations with the Athenian leaders in Samos and urged them to upset the democracy and establish a philo-Persian oligarchy. After elaborate intrigues, in the course of which Alcibiades played false to the conspirators by forcing them to abandon the idea of friendship with Tissaphernes owing to the exorbitant terms proposed, the new government by the Four Hundred was set up in Athens (see THERAMENES). This government (which received no support from the armament in Samos) had a brief life, and on the final revolt of Euboea was replaced by the old democratic system. Alcibiades (q.v.) was soon afterwards invited to return to Athens. The war, which, probably because of financial trouble, the Spartans had neglected to pursue when Athens was thus in the throes of political convulsion, was now resumed. After much manoeuvring and intrigues a naval battle was fought at Cynos- 1 She had already abolished the system of tribute in favour of a 5% ad valorem tax on all imports and exports carried by sea between her ports and those of the allies. sema in the Hellespont in which victory on the whole rested with the Athenians (Aug. 411), though the net result was inconsiderable. About this time the duplicity of Tissaphernes — who having again and again promised a Phoenician fleet and having actually brought it to the Aegean finally dismissed it on the excuse of trouble in the Levant — and the vigorous honesty of Pharnabazus definitely transferred the Peloponnesian forces to the north-west coast of Asia Minor and the Hellespont. There they were regularly financed by Pharnabazus, while the Athenians were compelled to rely on forced levies. In spite of this handicap Alcibiades, who had been seized and imprisoned by Tissaphernes at Sardis but effected his escape, achieved a remark- able victory over the Spartan Mindarus at Cyzicus (about April 410). So complete was the destruction of the Peloponnesian fleet that, according to Diodorus, peace was offered by Sparta (see ad fin.)a.nd would have been accepted but for the warlike speeches of the " demagogue " Cleophon representing the extreme democrats.2 Another result was the return to allegiance (4og) of a number of the north-east cities of the empire. Great attempts were made by the Athenians to hold the Hellespont and then to protect the corn-supply from the Black Sea. In Greece these gains were compensated by the loss of Pylos and Nisaea. In 408 Alcibiades effectively invested Chalcedon, which surrendered by agreement with Pharnabazus, and subsequently Byzantium also fell into his hands with the aid of some of its inhabitants. Pharnabazus, weary of bearing the whole cost of the war for the Peloponnesians, agreed to a period of truce so that envoys might visit Susa, but at this stage the whole position was changed by the appointment of Cyrus the Younger as satrap of Lydia, Greater Phrygia and Cappadocia. His arrival coincided with the appointment of Lysander (c. Dec. 408) as Spartan admiral — - the third of the three great commanders (Brasidas and Gylippus being the others) whom Sparta produced during the war. Cyrus promptly agreed on the special request of Lysander (q.v.) to pay slightly increased wages to the sailors, while Lysander established a system of anti-Athenian clubs and oligarchic governments in various cities. Meanwhile Alcibiades (May 407), having exacted levies in Caria, returned at length to Athens and was elected strategus with full powers (see STRATEGUS). He raised a large force of men and ships and endeavoured to draw Lysander (then at Ephesus) into an engagement. But Cyrus and Lysander were resolved not to fight till they had a clear advantage, and Alcibiades took a small squadron to Phocaea. In spite of his express orders his captain Antiochus in his absence provoked a battle and was defeated and killed at Notium. This failure and the refusal of Lysander to fight again destroyed the confidence which Alcibiades had so recently regained. Ten strategi were appointed to supersede him and he retired to fortified ports in the Chersonese which he had prepared for such an emergency (c. Jan. 406). At the same time Lysander's year of office expired and he was superseded by Callicratidas, to the disgust of all those whom he had so carefully organized in his service. Callicratidas, an honourable man of pan-Hellenic patriotism, was heavily handicapped in the fact that Cyrus declined to afford him the help which had made Lysander powerful, and had recourse to the Milesians and Chians, with whose aid he fitted out a fleet of 140 triremes (only 10 Spartan). With these he pursued Conon (chief of the ten new Athenian strategi), captured 30 of his 70 ships and besieged him in Mytilene. Faced with inevitable destruction, Conon succeeded in sending the news to Athens, where by extraordinary efforts a fleet of no ships was at once equipped. Callicratidas, hearing of this fleet's approach, with- drew from Mytilene, leaving Eteonicus in charge of the blockade. Forty more ships were collected by the Athenians, who met and defeated Callicratidas at Arginusae with a loss of more than half his fleet. The immediate result was that Eteonicus left Mytilene and Conon found himself free. Unfortunately the victorious generals at Arginusae, through negligence or owing - Xenophon, Hell, does not mention it : Thucydides's history had by this time come to an end. 76 PELOPONNESUS— PELOTA to a storm, failed to recover the bodies of those of their crews who were drowned or killed in the action. They were therefore recalled, tried and condemned to death, except two who had disobeyed the order to return to Athens. At this point Lysander was again sent out, nominally as secretary to the official admiral Aracus. Cyrus, recalled to Susa by the illness of Darius, left him in entire control of his satrapy. Thus strengthened he sailed to Lampsacus on the Hellespont and laid siege to it. Conon, now in charge of the Athenian fleet, sailed against him, but the fleet was entirely destroyed while at anchor at Aegospotami (Sept. 405), Conon escaping with only 12 out of 180 sail to Cyprus. In April 404 Lysander sailed into the Peiraeus, took possession of Athens, and destroyed the Long Walls and the fortifications of Peiraeus. An oligarchical government was set up (see CRITIAS), and Lysander having compelled the capitulation of Samos, the last Athenian stronghold, sailed in triumph to Sparta. Two questions of considerable importance for the full understand- ing of the Peloponnesian War may be selected for special notice: ( I ) how far was it a war between two antagonistic theories of govern- ment, oligarchic and democratic ? and (2) how far was Athenian statesmanship at fault in declining the offers of peace which Sparta made? 1. A common theory is that Sparta fought throughout the war as an advocate of oligarchy, while Athens did not seek to interfere with the constitutional preferences of her allies. The view is based partly on Thuc. i. 19, according to which the Spartans took care that their allies should adhere to a policy convenient to themselves. This idea is disproved by Thucydides" own narrative, which shows that down to 418 (the battle of Mantinea) Sparta tolerated democratic governments in Peloponnesus itself— e.g. Elis, Mantinea, Sicyon, Achaea. It was only after that date that democracy was suppressed in the Peloponnesian League, and even then Mantinea remained democratic. In point of fact, it was only when Lysander became the representative of Spartan foreign policy — i.e. in the last years of the war — that Sparta was identified with the oligarchic policy. On the other hand, there is strong evidence that the Athenian Empire at a much earlier date was based upon a uniform democratic type of government (cf. Thuc. i. 19, viii. 64; Xen. Pol. i. 14, Hell. iii. 47; Arist. Pol. viii. 69). It is true that we find oligarchic govern- ment in Chios and Lesbos (up to 428) and in Samos (up to 440), but this is discounted by the fact that all three were " autonomous " allies. Moreover, in the case of Samos there was a democracy in 439, though in 412 the government was again oligarchic. The case of Selymbria (see Hicks and Hill, op. cil. 77) is of little account, because at that time (409) the Empire was in extremis. In general we find that Athenian orators take special credit on the ground that the Athenian had given to her allies the constitutional advantages which they themselves enjoyed. 2. In view of the disastrous issue of the war, it is important to notice that on three occasions — (a) after Pylos, (6) after Cyzicus, (c) after Arginusae — Athens refused formal peace proposals from Sparta, (a) Though Cleon was probably wise in opposing peace negotiations before the capture of the Spartans in Sphactena, it seems in the light of subsequent events that he was wrong to refuse the terms which were offered after the hoplites had been captured. No doubt, however, the temper in Athens was at that time pre- dominantly warlike, and the surrender of the hoplites was a unique triumph. Possibly, too, Cleon foresaw that peace would have meant a triumph for the philo-Laconian party. (6) The peace proposals of 410 are given by Diodorus, who says that the ephor Endius proposed that a peace should be made on the basis of uti possidetis, except that Athens should evacuate Pylos and Cythera, and Sparta, Decelea. Cleophon, however, perhaps doubting whether the offer was sincere (cf. Philochorus in Schol. ap. Eurip. Orest. 371; Fragm. ed. Didot, 117, 1 1 8), demanded the status quo ante (413 or 431). (c) The proposals of 406, mentioned by Ath. Pol. 34, were on the same lines, except that Athens no longer had Pylos and Cythera, and had lost practically half her empire. At this time peace must therefore have been advantageous to Athens as showing the world that in spite of her losses she was still one of the great powers of Greece. Moreover, an alliance with Sparta would have meant a check to Persian interference. It is probable, again, that party interest was a leading motive in Cleophon's mind, since a peace would have meant the return of the oligarchic exiles and the establishment of a moderate oligarchy. AUTHORITIES.-^. Busolt, Griech. Gesch., Bd. iii., Teil ii. (1904), " Der Peloponnesische Krieg " is essential. All histories of Greece may be consulted (see GREECE: History, Ancient, section " Authorities "). (J. M. M.) PELOPONNESUS ("Island of Pelops "), the ancient and modern Greek official name for the part of Greece south of the Isthmus of Corinth. In medieval times it was called the Morea, from its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape, and this name is still current in popular speech. PELOPS, in Greek legend, the grandson of Zeus, son of Tantalus and Dione, and brother of Niobe. His father's home was on Mt Sipylus in Asia Minor, whence Pelops is spoken of as a Lydian or a Phrygian. Tantalus one day served up to the gods his own son Pelops, boiled and cut in pieces. The gods detected the crime, and none of them would touch the food except Demeter (according to others, Thetis), who, distracted by the loss of her daughter Persephone, ate of the shoulder. The gods restored Pelops to life, and the shoulder consumed by Demeter was replaced by one of ivory. Wherefore the descen- dants of Pelops had a white mark on their shoulder ever after (Ovid, Metam. vi. 404; Virgil, Georgics, iii. 7). This tale is perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice amongst the Greeks. Poseidon carried Pelops off to Olympus, where he dwelt with the gods, till, for his father's sins, he was cast out from heaven. Then, taking much wealth with him, he crossed over from Asia to Greece. He went to Pisa in Elis as suitor of Hippodameia, daughter of king Oenomaus, who had already vanquished in the chariot-race and slain many suitors for his daughter's hand. But by the help of Poseidon, who lent him winged steeds, or of Oenomaus's charioteer Myrtilus, whom he or Hippodameia bribed, Pelops was victorious in the race, wedded Hippodameia, and became king of Pisa (Hyginus, Fab. 84). The race of Pelops for his wife may be a reminiscence of the early practice of marriage by capture. When Myrtilus claimed his promised reward, Pelops flung him into the sea near Geraestus in Euboea, and from his dying curse sprang those crimes and sorrows of the house of Pelops which supplied the Greek tragedians with such fruitful themes (Sophocles, Electro., 505, with Jebb's note). Among the sons of Pelops by Hippodameia were Atreus, Thyestes and Chrysippus. From Pisa Pelops extended his sway over the neighbouring Olympia, where he celebrated the Olympian games with a splendour unknown before. His power and fame were so great that henceforward the whole peninsula was known to the ancients as Peloponnesus, " island of Pelops " (VTJO-OS, island). In after times Pelops was honoured at Olympia above all other heroes; a temple was built for him by Heracles, his descendant in the fourth generation, in which the annual magistrates sacri- ficed to him a black ram. From the reference to Asia in the tales of Tantalus, Niobe and Pelops it has been conjectured that Asia was the original seat of these legends, and that it was only after emigration to Greece that the people localized a part of the tale of Pelops in their new home. In the time of Pausanias the throne of Pelops was still shown on the top of Mt Sipylus. The story of Pelops is told in the first Olympian ode of Pindar and in prose by Nicolaus Damascenus. PELOTA (Sp. " little ball," from Lat. pila), a ball game which, originating centuries ago in the Basque provinces, has developed into several forms of the sport. Epigrams of Martial show that there were at least three kinds of pelota played in his time. Blaid, practically hand fives against the back wall of a court, is still played on both sides of the Pyrenees. It is so popular that the authorities had to forbid its being played against the walls of the cathedral at Barcelona. In uncovered courts of large size there are two varieties of pelota. One, the favourite pastime of the Basque, is played against a front wall (fronton), either bare- handed, with a leather or wooden long glove-like protector (cesla), or with a chistera strapped to the wrist, a sickle-shaped wicker-work implement three feet long, much like a hansom-wheel basket mud-guard, in the narrow groove of which the ball is caught and from which, thanks to the leverage afforded, it can be hurled with tremendous force. There are several players to a side, frequently an uneven number to allow a handicap. The score is announced by a cantara, whose melodious vocal efforts make him not the least appreciated participant in the game. In the other form of the game, played nearly exclusively by profes- sionals (pelotaris), there are usually three players on each side, two forwards and a back, distinguished by a coloured sash or cap. The server (bulteur) slips off his chistera to serve, bouncing the ball on the but, a kind of stool, about 30 ft. from the wall, and PELOTAS— PEMBA 77 striking it low against the wall. The side that wins the toss has the first service. The ball must be replayed by the opposing side at the wall, which it must hit over a line 3 ft. from the base of the wall and under the net fixed at the top of the wall. The game is counted 15, 30, 40, game, reckoned by the number of faults made by the opposing side. A fault is scored (a) when after the service the ball is not caught on the volley or first bounce, (6) when it does not on the return strike the wall within the prescribed limits, (c) when it goes out of the prescribed limits of the court, (d) when it strikes the net fixed at the top of the court. The side making the fault loses the service. A game like this has been played in England by Spanish professionals on a court 250 ft. long, against a wall 30 ft. high and 55 ft. wide. The ball used, a trifle smaller than a base-ball, is hard rubber wound with yarn and leather-covered, weighing 5 ounces. The server bounces the ball on the concrete floor quite near the fronton, and hits it with his chislera against the wall with a force to make it rebound beyond a line 80 ft. back. It usually goes treble that distance. PELOTAS, a city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, on the left bank of the Sao Goncalo river near its entrance into tne Lagda dos Patos, about 30 m. N.W. of the city of Rio Grande. Pop. (1900), city, about 24,000; municipio (commune, 1037 sq. m.), 43,091. The Rio Grande-Bage railway communi- cates with the city of Rio Grande, and with the railways extend- ing to Bage, Cacequy, Santa Maria, Passo Fundo and Porto Alegre. The Sao Goncalo river is the outlet of Lag6a Mirim, and Pelotas is therefore connected with the inland water routes. The city is built on an open grassy plain (campo) little above the level of the lake (28 ft. above sea-level). The public buildings include the church of Sao Francisco, dating from the early part of the igth century, the municipal hall, a fine theatre, the Misericordia hospital, a public library containing about 25,000 volumes and a great central market. Pelotas is the centre of the xarque or earns secca (jerked beef) industry of Rio Grande do Sul. In its outskirts and the surrounding country are an immense number of xarqueadas (slaughter-houses), with large open yards where the dressed beef, lightly salted, is exposed to the sun and air. There are many factories or packing nouses where the by- products are prepared for market. Pelotas was only a small settlement at the beginning of the igth century and had no parochial organization until 1812. It became a villa in 1830 and a city in 1835. PELOUZE, THEOPHILE JULES (1807-1867), French chemist, was born at Valognes, in Normandy, on the 26th (or I3th) of February 1807. His father, Edmond Pelouze (d. 1847), was an industrial chemist and the author of several technical handbooks. The son, after spending some time in a pharmacy at La Fere, acted as laboratory assistant to Gay-Lussac and J. L. Lassaigne (1800-1859) at Paris from 1827 to 1829. In 1830 he was ap- pointed associate professor of chemistry at Lille, but returning to Paris next year became repetiteur, and subsequently professor, at the Ecole Fob/technique. He also held the chair of chemistry at the College de France, and in 1833 became assayer to the mint and in 1848 president of the Commission des Monnaies. After the coup d'etat in 1851 he resigned his appointments, but con- tinued to conduct a laboratory-school he had started in 1846. He died in Paris on the ist of June 1867. Though Pelouze made no discovery of outstanding importance, he was a busy investi- gator, his work including researches on salicin, on beetroot sugar, on various organic acids — gallic, malic, tartaric, butyric, lactic, &c. — on oenanthic ether (with Liebig), on the nitrosulphates, on gun-cotton, and on the composition and manufacture of glass. He also carried out determinations of the atomic weights of several elements, and with E. Fremy, published Trait6 de chimie generde (1847-1850); Abrege de chimie (1848); and Notions generales de chimie (1853). PELTIER, JEAN CHARLES ATHANASE (1785-1845), French physicist, was born at Ham (Somme) on the 22nd of February 1785. He was originally a watchmaker, but retired from business about the age of thirty and devoted himself to experi- mental and observational science. His papers, which are numerous, are devoted in great part to atmospheric electricity, waterspouts, cyanometry and polarization of skylight, the temperature of water in the spheroidal state, and the boiling- point at great elevations. There are also a few devoted to curious points of natural history. But his name will always be associ- ated with the thermal effects at junctions in a voltaic circuit. His great experimental discovery, known as the " Peltier effect," was that if a current pass from an external source through a circuit of two metals it cools the junction through which it passes in the same direction as the thermo-electric current which would be caused by directly heating that junction, while it heats the other junction (see THERMO-ELECTRICITY). Peltier died in Paris on the 27th of October 1845. PELTUINUM [mod. Civita Ansidonia], a town of the Vestini, on the Via Claudia Nova, 12 m. E.S.E. of Aquila. It was apparently the chief town of that portion of the Vestini who dwelt west of the main Apennine chain. Remains of the town walls, of an amphitheatre, and of other buildings still exist. PELUSIUM, an ancient city and port of Egypt, now repre- sented by two large mounds close to the coast and the edge of the desert, 20 m. E. of Port Said. It lay in the marshes at the mouth of the most easterly (Pelusiac) branch of the Nile, which has long since been silted up, and was the key of the land towards Syria and a strong fortress, which, from the Persian invasion at least, played a great part in all wars between Egypt and the East. Its name has not been found on Egyptian monuments, but it may be the Sin of the Bible and of Assur-bani-pal's inscription. Pelusium (" the muddy ") is the Farama of the Arabs, Pere- moun in Coptic; the name Tina which clings to the locality seems etymologically connected with the Arabic word for clay or mud. The site, crowned with extensive ruins of burnt brick of the Byzantine or Arab period, has not yielded any important remains. (F. LL. G.) PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. ir&Xw), in anatomy, the bony cavity at the lower part of the abdomen in which much of the genito-urinary apparatus and the lower part of the bowels are contained (see SKELETON, § Appcndicidar). PEMBA, an island in the Indian Ocean off the east coast of Africa, forming part of the sultanate of Zanzibar. Pemba lies 30 m. N.N.E. of Zanzibar island between 4° 80' and 5° 30' S., and 39° 35' and 39° 50' E. It is some 40 m. long and 10 across at its broadest part, and has an area of 380 sq. m. It is of coral- line formation. On the side facing the mainland the coast is much indented. From its luxuriant vegetation it gets its' Arabic name of Al-huthera — " The Green." The interior is diversified by hills, some of which exceed 600 ft. The land is chiefly owned by great Arab proprietors, who work their plantations with Swahili labour, and with negroes from the mainland. Prior to 1897 the labourers were all slaves. Their gradual manumission was accomplished without injury to the prosperity of the island. The population is estimated at between 50,000 and 60,000, of whom 2000 to 3000 are Arabs. Most of the inhabitants are of Bantu stock, and are known as Wapemba. In the ports there are many Hindu traders and a few Europeans. The plantations are nearly all devoted to cloves (the annual average output being 10,000,000 Ib) and coco-nut palms (for the preparation of copra). The number of coco-nut plantations is very small compared with those devoted to cloves. Yet cloves need much care and attention and yield small profit, while the coco-nut palm yields a fairly uniform crop of nuts and will grow almost anywhere. The preponderance of clove plantations dates from a cyclone which in 1872 destroyed nearly all the clove-trees in the island of Zanzibar. Thereupon, to benefit from the great rise in the price of cloves, the Pemba planters cut down their palms and planted cloves. The value of the cloves exported in 1907 was £339,000, or 92 % of the total exports. India, Germany and Great Britain are, in the order named, the chief purchasers. Other exports include fire-wood, skins and hides, mother-of-pearl, wax and small quantities of rubber, cowries, tortoiseshell and so-called tortoise-nail. The " tortoise-nail " is the valve with which a shell-fish closes its shell. The Llandolphia rubber-vine is indigenous, and since 1906 Ceara rubber-trees have beea PEMBROKE, EARLS OF extensively planted. Rice, the chief of Pemba's imports, could easily be grown on the island. Cotton cloths (Kangas) form the next most considerable item in the imports. Pemba has three ports, all on the west side of the island. Shaki-Shaki, the capital and the centre of trade, is centrally situated at the head of a shallow tidal creek partly blocked by dense growths of mangroves. Mkoani is on the south-west coast, Kishi-Kashi on the north-west coast; at the last-named port there is a deep and well-sheltered harbour, approached however by a narrow and dangerous channel. Pemba is administered as an integral part of the Zanzibar dominions, and yields a considerable surplus to the exchequer, mainly from a 25% duty imposed on cloves exported. There is a weekly steamship service to Zanzibar, and in 1907 the two islands were connected by wireless telegraphy (see ZANZIBAR). PEMBROKE, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Pembroke has been held successively by several English families, the jurisdiction and dignity of a palatine earldom being originally attached to it. The first creation dates from 1138, when the earldom of Pembroke was conferred by King Stephen on Gilbert de Clare (d. 1148), son of Gilbert Fitz-Richard, who possessed the lordship of Strigul (Estrighoiel, in Domesday Book), the modern Chepstow. After the battle of Lincoln (1141), in which he took part, the earl joined the party of the empress Matilda, and he married Henry I.'s mistress, Isabel, daughter of Robert de Beaumont, earl of Leicester. RICHARD DE CLARE, 2nd earl of Pembroke (d. 1176), commonly known as " Strongbow," son of the first earl, succeeded to his father's estates in 1148, but had forfeited or lost them by 1168. In that year Dermot, king of Leinster, driven out of his kingdom by Roderick, king of Connaught, came to solicit help from Henry II. He secured the services of Earl Richard, promising him the hand of his daughter Eva and the succession to Leinster. The earl crossed over in person (1170), took both Waterford and Dublin, and was married to Eva. But Henry II., jealous of this success, ordered all the troops to return by Easter 1171. In May Dermot died; this was the signal of a general rising, and Richard barely managed to keep Roderick of Connaught out of Dublin. Immediately afterwards he hurried to England to solicit help from Henry II., and surrendered to him all his lands and castles. Henry crossed over in October 1172; he stayed in Ireland six months, and put his own men into nearly all the important places, Richard keeping only Kildare. In 1173 he went in person to France to help Henry II., and was present at Verneuil, being reinstated in Leinster as a reward. In 1174 he advanced into Connaught and was severely defeated, but for- tunately Raymond le Gros re-established his supremacy in Leinster. Early in 1176 Richard died, just as Raymond had taken Limerick for him. Strongbow was the statesman, as the Fitzgeralds were the soldiers, of the conquest. He is vividly described by Giraldus Cambrensis as a tall and fair man, of pleasing appearance, modest in his bearing, delicate in features, of a low voice, but sage in council and the idol of his soldiers. He was buried in the cathedral church of Dublin, where his effigy and that of his wife are still preserved. See Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio hibernica; and the Song of Dermot, edited by G. H. Orpen (1892). Strongbow having died without male issue, his daughter ISABEL became countess of Pembroke in her own right, and the title was borne by her husband, SIR WILLIAM MARSHAL, or Le Marechal, second son of John le Marechal, by Sibylle, the sister of Patrick, earl of Salisbury. John le Marechal was a partisan of the empress Matilda, and died about 1164. The date of Sir William Marshal's birth is uncertain, but his parents were married not earlier than 1141, and he was a mere child in 1152, when he attracted the notice of King Stephen. In 1170 he was selected for a position in the household of Prince Henry, the heir-apparent, and remained there until the death of his young patron (1183). He undertook a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where he served as a crusader with distinction for two years. Although he had abetted the prince in rebellion he was pardoned by Henry II. and admitted to the royal service about 1188. In 1189 he covered the flight of Henry II. from Le Mans to Chinon, and, in a skirmish, unhorsed the undutiful Richard Cceur de Lion. None the less Richard, on his accession, promoted Marshal and confirmed the old king's 'licence for his marriage with the heiress of Strigul and Pembroke. This match gave Marshal the rank of an earl, with great estates in Wales and Ireland, and he was included in the council of regency which the king appointed on his departure for the third crusade (1190). He took the side of Prince John when the latter expelled the justiciar, William Longchamp, from the kingdom, but he soon discovered that the interests of John were different from those of Richard. Hence in 1193 he joined with the loyalists in making war upon the prince. Richard forgave Marshal his first error of judgment, allowed him to succeed his brother, John Marshal, in the hereditary marshalship, and on his death-bed designated him as custodian of Rouen and of the royal treasure during the interregnum. Though he quarrelled more than once with John, Marshal was one of the few English laymen who clung to the royal side through the Barons' War. He was one of John's executors, and was subsequently elected regent of the king and kingdom by the royalist barons in 1 2 1 6. In spite of his advanced age he prosecuted the war against Prince Louis and the rebels with remarkable energy. In the battle of Lincoln (May 1217) he charged and fought at the head of the young king's army, and he was preparing to besiege Louis in London when the war was terminated by the naval victory of Hubert de Burgh in the straits of Dover. He was criticized for the generosity of the terms he accorded to Louis and the rebels (September 1217); but his desire for an expeditious settlement was dictated by sound statesmanship. Self-restraint and compromise were the key-notes of Marshal's policy. Both before and after the peace of 1217 he reissued Magna Carta. He fell ill early in the year 1219, and died on the I4th of May at his manor of Caversham near Reading. He was succeeded in the regency by Hubert de Burgh, in his earldom by his five sons in succession. See the metrical French life, Histoire de GuiUaume le Marechal (ed. P. Meyer, 3 vols., Paris, 1891-1901) ; the Minority of Henry III., by G. J. Turner (Trans. Royal Hist. Soc., new series, vol. xviii. pp. 245-295); and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, chs. xii. and xiv. (Oxford, 1896-1897). Marshal's eldest son, WILLIAM MARSHAL (d. 1231), 2nd earl of Pembroke of this line, passed some years in warfare in Wales and in Ireland, where he was justiciar from 1224 to 1226; he also served Henry III. in France. His second wife was the king's sister, Eleanor, afterwards the wife of Simon de Montfort, but he left no children. His brother RICHARD MARSHAL (d. 1234), 3rd earl, came to the front as the leader of the baronial party, and the chief antagonist of the foreign friends of Henry III. Fearing treachery he refused to visit the king at Gloucester in August 1233, and Henry declared him a traitor. He crossed to Ireland, where Peter des Roches had instigated his enemies to attack him, and in April 1234 he was overpowered and wounded, and died a prisoner. His brother GILBERT (d. 1241), who became the 4th earl, was a friend and ally of Richard, earl of Cornwall. When another brother, Anselm, the 6th earl, died in December 1245, the male descendants of the great earl marshal became extinct. The extensive family possessions were now divided among Anselm's five sisters and their descendants, the earldom of Pembroke reverting to the Crown. The next holder of the lands of the earldom of Pembroke was William de Valence (d. 1296), a younger son of Hugh de Lusignan, count of La Marche, by his marriage with Isabella of Angouleme (d. 1246), widow of the English king John, and was born at Valence, near Lusignan. In 1247 William and his brothers, Guy and Aymer, crossed over to England at the invitation of their half-brother, Henry III. In 1250 Aymer (d. 1260) was elected bishop of Winchester, and in 1247 Henry arranged a marriage between William and Joan de Munchensi (d. 1307) a grand- daughter of William Marshal, ist earl of Pembroke. The custody of Joan's property, which included the castle and lordship of Pembroke, was entrusted to her husband, who in 1295 was summoned to parliament as earl of Pembroke. In South Wales PEMBROKE, EARLS OF 79 Valence tried to regain the palatine rights which had been attached to the earldom of Pembroke. But his energies were not confined to South Wales. Henry III. heaped lands and honours upon him, and he was soon thoroughly hated as one of the most prominent of the rapacious foreigners. Moreover, some trouble in Wales led to a quarrel between him and Simon de Montfort, and this soon grew more violent. He would not comply with the provisions of Oxford, and took refuge in Wolvesey Castle at Winchester, where he was besieged and compelled to surrender and leave the country. In 1259 he and Earl Simon were formally reconciled in Paris, and in 1261 he was again in England and once more enjoying the royal favour. He fought for Henry at the battle of Lewes, and then, after a stay in France, he landed in Pembrokeshire, and took part in 1265 in the siege of Gloucester and the battle of Evesham. After the royalist victory he was restored to his estates and accompanied Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., to Palestine. He went several times to France on public business; he assisted in the conquest of North Wales; and he was one of Edward's representatives in the famous suit over the succession to the crown of Scotland in 1291 and 1292. He died at Bayonne on the I3th of June 1296, his body being buried in Westminster Abbey. His eldest surviving son, AYMER (c. 1265-1324), succeeded to his father's estates, but was not formally recognized as earl of Pembroke until after the death of his mother Joan about 1307. He was appointed guardian of Scotland in 1306, but with the accession of Edward II. to the throne and the consequent rise of Piers Gaveston to power, his influence sensibly declined; he became prominent among the discontented nobles and was one of those who were appointed to select the lord ordainers in 1311. In 1312 he captured Gaveston at Scarborough, giving the favourite a promise that his life should be spared. Ignoring this under- taking, however, Guy Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, put Gaveston to death, and consequently Pembroke left the allied lords and attached himself to Edward II. Valence was present at Bannock- burn; in 1317, when returning to England from Rome, he was taken prisoner and was kept in Germany until a large ransom was paid. In 1318 he again took a conspicuous part in making peace between Edward and his nobles, and in 1322 assisted at the formal condemnation of Earl Thomas of Lancaster, and received some of his lands. His wife, Mary de Chatillon, a descendant of King Henry III., was the founder of Pembroke College, Cambridge. In 1339 LAURENCE, LORD HASTINGS (d. 1348), a great-grand- son of William de Valence, having inherited through the female line a portion of the estates of the Valence earls of Pembroke was created, or recognized as, earl of Pembroke. His son John (d. 1376) married Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of King Edward III., and on the death without issue of his grandson in 1389 the earldom of Pembroke reverted again to the Crown, while the barony of Hastings became dormant and so remained till 1840. In 1414 Humphrey Plantagenet, fourth son of King Henry IV., was created duke of Gloucester and earl of Pembroke for life, these titles being subsequently made hereditary, with a reversion as regards the earldom of Pembroke, in default of heirs to Humphrey, to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. Accordingly, on the death of Humphrey, without issue, in 1447 this nobleman became earl of Pembroke. He was beheaded in 1450 and his titles were forfeited. In 1453 the title was given to Sir Jasper Tudor, half-brother of King Henry VI. Sir Jasper being a Lancastrian, his title was forfeited during the pre- dominance of the house of York, but was restored on the accession of Henry VII. On his death without heirs in 1495, his title became extinct. During his attainder Sir Jasper was taken prisoner by SIR WILLIAM HERBERT (d. 1469), a zealous Yorkist, who had been raised to the peerage as Baron Herbert by Edward IV., and for this service Lord Herbert was created earl of Pembroke in 1468. His son William (d. 1491) received the earldom of Huntingdon in lieu of that of Pembroke, which he surrendered to Edward IV., who thereupon conferred it (1479) on his son Edward, prince of Wales; and when this prince succeeded to the throne as Edward V., the earldom of Pembroke merged in the crown. ANNE BOLEYN, a few months previous to her marriage with Henry VIII., was created marchioness of Pembroke in 1532. It is doubted by authorities on peerage law whether the title merged in the royal dignity on the marriage of the marchioness to the king, or became extinct on her death in 1536. The title of earl of Pembroke was ne'xt revived in favour of SIR WILLIAM HERBERT (c. 1501-1570), whose father, Richard, was an illegitimate son of the ist earl of Pembroke of the house of Herbert. He had married Anne Parr, sister of Henry VIII. 's sixth wife, and was created earl in 1551. The title has since been held by his descendants. An executor of Henry VIII. 's will and the recipient of valuable grants of land, Herbert was a prominent and powerful personage during the reign of Edward VI., both the protector Somerset and his rival, John Dudley, afterwards duke of Northumberland, angling for his support. He threw in his lot with Dudley, and after Somerset's fall obtained some of his lands in Wiltshire and a peerage. It has been asserted that he devised the scheme for settling the English crown on Lady Jane Grey; at all events he was one of her advisers during her short reign, but he declared for Mary when he saw that Lady Jane's cause was lost. By Mary and her friends Pembroke's loyalty was at times suspected, but he was employed as governor of Calais, as president of Wales and in other ways. He was also to some extent in the confidence of Philip II. of Spain. The earl retained his place at court under Elizabeth until 1569, when he was suspected of favouring the projected marriage between Mary, queen of Scots, and the duke of Norfolk. Among the monastic lands granted to Herbert was the estate of Wilton, near Salisbury, still the residence of the earls of Pembroke. His elder son Henry (c. 1534-1601), who succeeded as 2nd earl, was president of Wales from 1586 until his death. He married in 1577 Mary Sidney, the famous countess of Pembroke (c. 1561- 1621), third daughter of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife Mary Dudley. Sir Philip Sidney to whom she was deeply attached through life, was her eldest brother. Sir Philip Sidney spent the summer of 1580 with her at Wilton, or at Ivychurch, a favourite retreat of hers in the neighbourhood. Here at her request he began the Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, which was intended for her pleasure alone, not for publication. The two also worked at a metrical edition of the Psalms. When the great sorrow of her brother's death came upon her she made herself his literary executor, correcting the unauthorized editions of the Arcadia and of his poems, which appeared in 1590 and 1591. She also took under her patronage the poets who had looked to her brother for protection. Spenser dedicated his Ruines of Time to her, and refers to her as Urania in Colin Clout's come home againe; in Spenser's Astrophel she is " Clorinda." In 1599 Queen Elizabeth was her guest at Wilton, and the countess composed for the occasion a pastoral dialogue in praise of Astraea. After her husband's death she lived chiefly in London at Crosby Hall, where she died. The Countess's other works include: A Discourse of Life and Death, translated from the French of Plessis du Mornay (1593), and Antoine (1592), a version of a tragedy of Robert Gamier. WILLIAM HERBERT, 3rd earl of Pembroke (1580-1630), son of the 2nd earl and his famous countess, was a conspicuous figure in the society of his time and at the court of James I. Several times he found himself opposed to the schemes of the duke of Buckingham, and he was keenly interested in the colonization of America. He was lord chamberlain of the royal household from 1615 to 1625 and lord steward from 1626 to 1630. He was chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1624 when Thomas Tesdale and Richard Wightwick refounded Broadgates Hall and named it Pembroke College in his honour. By some Shake- spearian commentators Pembroke has been identified with the " Mr W. H. " referred to as " the onlie begetter "of Shakespeare's sonnets in the dedication by Thomas Thorpe, the owner of the published manuscript, while his mistress, Mary Fitton (q.v.), has been identified with the " dark lady " of the sonnets. In both 8o PEMBROKE cases the identification rests on very questionable evidence (see SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM). He and his brother Philip are the " incomparable pair of brethren " to whom the first folio of Shakespeare is inscribed. The earl left no sons when he died in London on the loth of April 1630. Clarendon gives a very eulogistic account of Pembroke, who appears, however, to have been a man of weak character and dissolute hie. Gardiner describes him as the Hamlet of the English court. He had literary tastes and wrote poems; one of his closest friends was the poet Donne, and he was generous to Ben Jonson, Massinger and others. His brother, PHILIP HERBERT, the 4th earl (1584-1650), was for some years the chief favourite of James I., owing this position to his comely person and his passion for hunting and for field sports generally. In 1605 the king created him earl of Montgomery and Baron Herbert of Shurland, and since 1630, when he succeeded to the earldom of Pembroke, the head of the Herbert family has carried the double title of earl of Pembroke and Montgomery. Although Philip's quarrelsome disposition often led him into trouble he did not forfeit the esteem of James I., who heaped lands and offices upon him, and he was also trusted by Charles I., who made him lord chamberlain in 1626 and frequently visited him at Wilton. He worked to bring about peace between the king and the Scots in 1639 and 1640, but when in the latter year the quarrel between Charles and the English parliament was renewed, he deserted the king who soon deprived him of his office of chamberlain. Trusted by the popular party, Pembroke was made governor of the Isle of Wight, and he was one of the repre- sentatives of the parliament on several occasions, notably during the negotiations at Uxbridge in 1645 and at Newport in 1648, and when the Scots surrendered Charles in 1647. From 1641 to 1643, and again from 1647 to 1650, he was chancellor of the university of Oxford; in 1648 he removed some of the heads of houses from their positions because they would not take the solemn league and covenant, and his foul language led to the remark that he was more fitted " by his eloquence in swearing to preside over Bedlam than a learned academy." In 1649, although a peer, he was elected and took his seat in the House of Commons as member for Berkshire, this " ascent downwards " calling forth many satirical writings from the royalist wits. The earl was a great collector of pictures and had some taste for architecture. His eldest surviving son, Philip (1621-1669), became sth earl of Pembroke, and 2nd earl of Montgomery; he was twice married, and was succeeded in turn by three of his sons, of whom Thomas, the Sth earl (c. 1656-1733), was a person of note during the reigns of William III. and Anne. From 1690 to 1692 he was first lord of the admiralty; then he served as lord privy seal until 1699, being in 1697 the first plenipotentiary of Great Britain at the congress of Ryswick. On two occasions he was lord high admiral for a short period; he was also lord president of the council and lord-lieutenant of Ireland, while he acted as one of the lords justices seven times; and he was president of the Royal Society in 1689-1690. His son Henry, the gth earl (c. 1689-1750), was a soldier, but was better known as the " architect earl." He was largely responsible for the erection of Westminster Bridge. The title descended directly to Henry,ioth earl (1734-1794), a soldier, who wrote the Method of Breaking Horses (1762); George Augustus, nth earl (1759-1827), an ambassador extraordinary to Vienna in 1807; and Robert Henry, i2th earl (1791-1862), who died without issue. George Robert Charles, the I3th earl (1850-1895), was a grandson of the nth earl and a son of Baron Herbert of Lea (q.v.), whose second son Sidney (b. 1853) inherited all the family titles at his brother's death. See G. T. Clark, The Earls, Earldom and Castle of Pembroke (Tenby, 1880); J. R. Planch6, "The Earls of Strigul '" in vol. x. of the Proceedings of the British Archaeological Association (1855); and G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895). PEMBROKE, a town of Ontario, Canada, capital of Renfrew county, 74 m. W.N.W., of Ottawa by rail on the south shore of Allumette Lake, an expansion of the Ottawa river, and on the Canadian Pacific and Canada Atlantic railways. Pop. (1901), 5156. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, an important centre in the lumber trade, and contains saw, grist and woollen mills, axe factory, &c. The Muskrat river affords excellent water-power. PEMBROKE (Penfro), an ancient municipal borough, a contributory parliamentary borough and county-town of Pem- brokeshire, Wales, situated on a narrow peninsula at the head of the Pennar tidal inlet or " pill " of Milford Haven. Pop. (1901), 4487; together with Pembroke Dock 15,853. Pembroke is a station on the South Wales system of the Great Western railway. The old-fashioned town, consisting chiefly of one long broad street, retains portions of its ancient walls. A large mill-dam is a conspicuous feature on the north of the town. St Mary's church in the centre of the town possesses a massive tower of the 1 2th century. Near the ruined West Gate is the entrance to Pembroke Castle, a splendid specimen of medieval fortified architecture. The circular vaulted keep erected by Earl William Marshal (c. 1200), remains almost intact. Close to the keep stands the ruined chamber wherein, according to local tradition, Henry VII. was born in 1457. Beneath the fine banqueting hall, a flight of steps descends into " the Wogan," a vast subterranean chamber giving access to the harbour. Facing the castle, on the western side of the pill, stand the considerable remains of Monkton Priory, a Benediction house founded by Earl William Marshal as a cell to the abbey of Seez or Sayes in Normandy, but under Henry VI. transferred to the abbey of St Albans. The priory church, now the parish church of the suburb of Monkton, contains monuments of the families of Meyrick of Bush and Owen of Orielton. St Daniel's chapel forms a prominent landmark on the ridge south of the town. PEMBROKE DOCK (formerly known as Pater, or Paterchurch), a naval dockyard and garrison town, is situated close to Hobb's Point, at the eastern extremity of Milford Haven. It forms the Pater Ward of Pembroke, from which it is distant 2 m. to the north-west. The place owes its origin to the decision of the government in 1814 to form a naval dep6t on Milford Haven. The dockyard, enclosed by high walls and covering 80 acres, is protected by a powerful fort — the construction and repairing of ironclads are extensively carried on here. There is a submarine depot at Pennar Gut, and also accommodation for artillery and infantry. Ferry boats ply frequently between Pembroke Dock and Neyland on the opposite shore of the Haven. Pembroke is probably an Anglo-Norman form of the Cymric Penfro, the territory lying between Milford Haven and the Bristol Channel, now known as the Hundred of Castlemartin. During the invasion of South Wales under William Rufus, Arnulf de Montgomeri, fifth son of Roger earl of Shrewsbury, seems to have erected a fortress of stone (c. 1090) on the site of the castle. The first castellan of this new stronghold was Giraldus de Windsor, husband of the Princess Nest of South Wales and grandfather of Giraldus Cambrensis. Throughout the 1 2th and i3th centuries the castle was strengthened and enlarged under successive earls palatine of Pembroke, who made this fortress their chief seat. As the capital of the palatinate and as the nearest port for Ireland, Pembroke was in Plantagenet times one of the most important fortified cities in the kingdom. The town, which had grown up under the shadow of the almost impregnable castle, was first incorporated by Henry I. in 1109 and again by Earl Richard de Clare in 1 1 54 (who also encircled the town with walls), and these privileges were confirmed and extended under succeeding earls palatine and kings of England. In 1835 the corporation was remodelled under the Municipal Corporations Act. Henry II. occasionally visited Pembroke, notably in 1172, and until the close of the Wars of the Roses, both town and castle played a prominent part in the history of Britain. With the passing of the Act of Union of Wales and England in 1536 however, the jura regalia of the county palatine of Pembroke were abolished, and the prosperity of the town began to decline. Although acknowledged as the county town of Pembrokeshire, Pembroke was superseded by Haverfordwest as the judicial and administrative centre of the shire on account of the more convenient position of the latter place. By the act of 1536 Pembroke was declared the leading borough in the PEMBROKESHIRE 81 Pembroke parliamentary district, yet the town continued to dwindle until the settlement of the government dockyard and works on Milford Haven. At the outbreak of the Civil Wars the town and castle were garrisoned for parliament by the mayor, John Poyer, a leading Presbyterian, who was later appointed governor, with Rowland Laugharne of St Brides for his lieu- tenant. But at the time of the Presbyterian defection in 1647, Poyer and his lieutenant-governors, Laugharne and Powell, declared for Charles and held the castle in the king's name. In June 1648 Cromwell himself proceeded to invest Pembroke Castle, which resisted with great obstinacy. But after the water-supply of the garrison had been cut off, the besieged were forced to capitulate, on the nth of July 1648, on the condition of surrendering up the three chief defenders of the castle. Poyer, Laugharne and Powell were accordingly brought to London, but finally only Poyer was executed. The magnificent ruin of Pembroke Castle is the nominal property of the Crown, but has been held on lease since the reign of James II. by the family of Pryse of Gogerddan in Cardiganshire. PEMBROKESHIRE (Sir Benfro, Dyfed), the most westerly county of South Wales, bounded N.E. by Cardigan, E.by Carmar- then, S. by the Bristol Channel and W. and N.W. by St Bride's Bay and Cardigan Bay of St George's Channel. Area 613 sq. m. The whole coast is extremely indented, extending over 140 m. in length. The principal inlets are Milford Haven, St Bride's Bay, Freshwater Bay, Fishguard Bay and Newport Bay. The chief promontories are Cemmaes, Dinas, Strumble, St David's, St Ann's and St Gowan's Heads. Five islands of moderate size lie off the coast, viz. Ramsey, Grassholm, Skomer and Skokholm in St Bride's Bay, and Caldy Island (Ynys Pyr) opposite Tenby; the last named having a population of about 70 persons. Rare birds, such as peregrine falcons, ravens and choughs are not uncommon, while guillemots, puffins and other sea-fowl breed in immense numbers on the Stack Rocks, on Ramsey Island and at various points of the coast. Seals are plentiful in the caves of St Bride's Bay and Cardigan Bay. The county is undulating, and large tracts are bare, but the valleys of the Cleddau, the Nevern, the Teifi and the Gwaun are well-wooded. The Preselley Mountains stretch from Fishguard to the border of Carmarthen, the principal heights being Preselley Top (1760 ft.) and Cam Englyn (1022 ft.). Treffgarn Rock in the Plumstone Mountains is popularly supposed to mark the northern limit of the ancient settlement of the Flemings. The principal rivers are the Teifi, forming the northern boundary of the county from Abercych to Cardigan Bay; the Nevern and the Gwaun, both falling into Cardigan Bay; and the Eastern and Western Cleddau, forming the Daugleddau after their junction below Haverford- west. All these streams contain trout and salmon. There are no lakes, but the broad tidal estuaries of the Daugleddau and other rivers, which fall into Milford Haven and are locally called " pills," constitute a peculiar feature of south Pembrokeshire scenery. Geology. — Pembrokeshire is divisible into a northern portion occupied mainly by Ordovician and Silurian strata, which have been subjected to pressures from the north, the strike of the beds being south-west-north-east ; and a southern portion, the westerly con- tinuation of the South Wales coalfield, with associated Lower Carboniferous, Old Red Sandstone and narrow belts of Silurian rocks, the whole having been considerably folded and faulted by pressure from the south, which has produced a general north- west- south-east strike. In the neighbourhood of St Davids are the Pre- Cambrian granitic rocks (Dimetian) and volcanic rocks (Pebedian). These are surrounded by belts of unconformable Cambrian strata (Lingula Flags, Tremadoc beds), followed by Ordovician (Arenig, Llandeilo and Bala beds) with associated igneous rocks. These comprise gabbros and diabases of Strumble Head, Fishguard, Llanwnda, Prescelly; diorites north-west of St Davids, bostonites and porphyrites about Abercastle and the basaltic laccolite of Pen Caer, besides various contemporaneous acid lavas and tuffs. The Ordovician and Silurian rocks extend southward to the neighbour- hood of Narberth and Haverfordwest, where Arenig, Llandeilo and Bala beds (Slade and Red Hill beds; Sholeshook and Robeston Walthen Limestone) and Llandovery beds are recorded. The Coal Measures, highly inclined and anthracitic, stretch across from Carmarthen Bay to the shore of St Bride's Bay ; they are bordered on the north and south-east by the Millstone Grits, Carboniferous Limestone series and Old Red Sandstone. On account of the folding the limestone appears again farther south at Pembroke, Caldy Island and St Gowan's Head; most of the remaining ground about Milford Haven being occupied by Old Red Sandstone with infolded strips of Silurian. A fairly large tract of blown-sand occurs in Freshwater Bay south of Milford Haven. Silver-bearing lead has been mined at Llanfyrnach. Climate and Industries. — The climate is everywhere mild, and in the sheltered valleys near the coast sub-tropical vegetation flourishes in the open air. In the south the rainfall is small, and the districts round Pembroke suffer from occasional droughts. The chief industry is agriculture, wherein stock-raising is preferred to the growing of cereals. Of cattle the long-horned, jet-black Castlemartin breed is everywhere conspicuous. South Pembroke has long been celebrated for its horses, which are bred in great numbers by the farmers. The deep-sea fisheries of Tenby and Milford are valuable; and fresh fish of good quality is exported by rail to the large towns. Oysters are found at Langwm and near Tenby; lobsters and crabs abound on the western coast. The South Wales coalfield extends into south Pembroke, and coal is worked at Saundersfoot, Begelly, Temple- ton, Kilgetty and other places. There are slate quarries at Glogue, Cilgerran and elsewhere; copper has been worked near St Davids, and lead at Llanfyrnach. Communications. — The South Wales branch of the Great Western railway enters Pembrokeshire from the east near Clynderwen Junction, whence the main line leads to Fishguard Harbour with its important Irish traffic. Other lines proceed to Neyland and Milford Haven by way of Haverfordwest, and a branch line from Clynderwen to Goodwick joins the main line at Letterston. The Whitland- Cardigan branch traverses the north-east by way of Crymmych and Cilgerran. Another line running south-west from Whitland proceeds by way of Narberth and Tenby to Pembroke Dock. Population and Administration. — The area of Pembrokeshire is 395,151 acres with a population in 1891 of 89,138 and 1901 of 88,732, showing a slight decrease. The municipal boroughs are Pembroke (pop. 15,853); Haverfordwest (6007); and Tenby (4400). The hamlet of Bridgend and a part of St Dogmell's parish are included within the municipal limits of Cardigan. Newport (Trefdraeth) (1222), the chief town of the barony of Kernes, or Cemmaes, still possesses a mayor and corporation under a charter granted in 1215 by Sir Nicholas Marteine, lord of Kernes, whose hereditary representative still nominates the mayor and aldermen, but its surviving municipal privileges are practically honorary. Milford Haven (5102), Narberth (1070) and Fishguard (2002) are urban districts. Other towns are St Davids (1710), St Dogmells (Llandudoch) (1286); and Cilgerran (1038). Pembrokeshire lies in the South Wales circuit, and assizes are held at Haverfordwest. Two members are returned to parliament; one for the county, and one for the united boroughs of Pembroke, Haverfordwest, Tenby, Fishguard, Narberth, Neyland, Milford and Wiston (Castell Gwys). Ecclesiastically, the county contains 153 parishes and lies wholly in the diocese of St Davids. History. — Pembrokeshire, anciently known to the Welsh as Dyfed, was originally comprised in the territory of the Dimetae, conquered by the Romans. During the 6th century St David, or Dewi Sant, moved the chief seat of South Welsh monastic and ecclesiastical life from Caerleon-on-Usk to his native place Menevia, which, known in consequence as Tyddewi, or St Davids, continued a centre of religious and educational activity until the Reformation, a period of 1000 years. On the death of Rhodri Mawr in 877, Dyfed fell nominally under the sway of the princes of Deheubarth, or South Wales; but their hold was never very secure, nor were they able to protect the coast towns from the Scandinavian pirates. In 1081 William the Conqueror penetrated west as far as St Davids, where he is said to have visited St David's shrine as a devout pilgrim. In 1092 Arnulf de Montgomeri, son of Roger, earl of Shrewsbury, did homage to the king for the Welsh lands of Dyfed. With the building of Pembroke Castle, of which Gerald de Windsor was appointed castellan, the Normans began to spread over southern Dyfed; whilst Martin de Tours, landing in Fishguard PEMBROKESHIRE Bay and building the castle of Newport at Trefdraeth, won for himself the extensive lordship of Kemes (Cemmaes) between the river Teifi and the Preselley Mountains. The systematic planting of Flemish settlers in the hundred of Rhos, or Roose, in or about the years 1106, 1108 and mi with the approval of Henry I., and again in 1156 under Henry II., marks an all-important episode in the history of Pembrokeshire. The castles of Haverfordwest and Tenby were now erected to protect these aliens, and despite the fierce attacks of the Welsh princes their domain grew to be known as " Little England beyond Wales," a district whereof the language, customs and people still remain characteristic. In 1138 Gilbert de Clare, having previously obtained Henry I.'s permission to enjoy all lands he might win for himself in Wales, was created earl of Pembroke in Stephen's reign with the full powers of an earl palatine in Dyfed. The devolution of this earldom is dealt with in a separate article. In 1536, by the Act of Union (27 Henry VIII.), the king abolished all special jurisdiction in Pembrokeshire, which he placed on an equal footing with the remaining shires of Wales, while its borders were enlarged by the addition of Kemes, Dewisland and other outlying lordships. By the act of 1536 the county returned to parliament one knight for the shire and two burgesses; one for the Pembroke boroughs and one for the town and county of Haverfordwest, both of which since 1885 have been merged in the] Pembroke-and-Haverfordwest parliamentary division. The Reformation deprived the county of the presence of the bishops of St Davids, who on the partial dismantling of the old episcopal palace at St Davids removed their chief seat of residence to Abergwiliy, near Carmarthen. Meanwhile the manor of Lamphey was granted to the family of Devereux, earls of Essex, and other episcopal estates were alienated to court favourites, notably to Sir John Perrot of Haroldstone (1517-1592), afterwards lord-deputy of Ireland. During the Civil Wars the forces of the parliament, commanded by Colonel Laugharne and Captain Swanley, reduced the royal forts at Tenby, Milford and Haverfordwest. In February 1797 some French frigates appeared off Fishguard Bay and landed about 1400 Frenchmen at Llanwnda. The invaders soon capitulated to the local militia, practically without striking a blow. The ipth century saw the establishment of the naval dockyard at Paterchurch and the building of docks and quays at Neyland and Milford. In 1906 extensive works for cross- traffic with Ireland were opened at Fishguard Harbour. Many of the old Pembrokeshire families, whose names appear prominent in the county annals, are extinct in the county itself. Amongst these may be mentioned Perrot of Haroldstone, Devereux of Lamphey, Barlow of Slebech, Barrett of Gilliswick, Wogan of Wiston, Elliot of Amroth and Owen of Henllys. Amongst ancient families still existing are Philipps of Lydstep and Amroth (descendants of the old Welsh lords of Cilsant); Philipps of Picton Castle (a branch of the same house in the female line); Lort of Stackpole Court, now represented by Earl Cawdor; Scourfield of Moate; Bowen of Llwyngwair; Edwardes, Lords Kensington, of St Brides; Meyrickof Bush; Lort-Philipps of Lawrenny; Colby of Ffynone; Stokes of Cuffern; Lloyd of Newport Castle (in which family is vested the hereditary lord- ship of the barony of Kemes); Saunders-Davies of Pentre; and Gower of Castle Malgwyn. Antiquities. — There are few remaining traces in the county of the Roman occupation of Dimetia, but in British encamp- ments, tumuli, cromlechs and monumental stones Pembrokeshire is singularly rich. Of the cromlechs the best preserved are those at Longhouse, near Mathry; at Pentre Evan in the Nevern Valley; and at Llech-y-dribedd, near Moylgrove; whilst of the many stone circles and alignments, that known as Pare-y-Marw, or " The Field of the Dead," near Fishguard, is the least injured. Stones inscribed in Ogam characters are not uncommon, and good examples exist at Caldy Island, Bridell, St Dogmells and Cilgerran. There are good specimens of Celtic floriated churchyard crosses at Carew, Penally and Nevern. Interesting examples of medieval domestic architecture are the ruins of the former episcopal mansions at Llawhaden, St Davids and Lamphey, the two latter of which were erected by Bishop Gower between the years 1328-1347. With the exception of the cathedral at St Davids and the principal churches of Haver- fordwest and Tenby, the parish churches of Pembrokeshire are for the most part small, but many are ancient and possess fine monuments or other objects of interest, especially in " Little England beyond Wales." Amongst the more note- worthy are the churches at Stackpole Elidur, Carew, Burton, Gumfreston, Nevern, St Petrox and Rudbaxton, the last-named containing a fine Jacobean monument of the Hayward family. Pembrokeshire has long been famous for its castles, of which the finest examples are to be observed at Pembroke; Manorbier, built in the izth century and interesting as the birthplace and home of Giraldus Cambrensis; Carew, exhibiting many interest- ing features both of Norman and Tudor architecture; and Picton, owned and inhabited by a branch of the Philipps family. Other castles are the keep of Haverfordwest and the ruined for- tresses at Narberth, Tenby, Newport, Wiston, Benton, Upton and Cilgerran. There are some remains of monastic houses at Tenby and Pembroke, but the most important religious communities were the priory of the Augustinian friars at Haverfordwest and the abbey of the Benedictines at St Dogmells. Of this latter house, which was founded by Martin de Tours, first lord of Kemes, at the close of the nth century, and who owned the priories of Pill and Caldy, considerable ruins exist near the left bank of the Teifi about i m. below Cardigan. Of the ancient preceptory of the Knights of St John at Slebech scarcely a trace remains, but of the college of St Mary at St Davids founded by Bishop Houghton in 1377, the shell of the chapel survives in fair preservation. Pembrokeshire contains an unusually large number of county seats, particularly in the south, which includes Stackpole Court, the residence of Earl Cawdor, a fine mansion erected in the i8th century; Picton Castle; Slebech, once the seat of the Barlows; Orielton, formerly belonging to the Owens; and Ffynone, the residence of the Colby family. Customs, 6"c. — The division of Pembrokeshire ever since the 1 2th century into well-defined Englishry and Welshry has produced two distinct sets of languages and customs within the county. Roughly speaking, the English division, the Anglia Transwalliana of Camden, occupies the south-eastern half and comprises the hundreds of Roose, Castlemartin, Narberth and Dungleddy. In the Welshry, which includes the hundreds of Dewisland and Cilgerran together with the old barony of Kemes, the language, customs, manners and folk-lore of the inhabitants are almost identical with those of Cardigan and Carmarthen. The old Celtic game of Knappan, a pastime partaking of the nature both of football and hockey, in which whole parishes and even hundreds were wont to take an active part, was pre- valent in the barony of Kemes so late as the i6th century, as George Owen of Henllys, the historian and antiquary, records; and the playing of knappan lingered on after Owen's day. Amongst the settlers of the Englishry, who are of mingled Anglo- Saxon, Flemish, Welsh and perhaps Scandinavian descent, many interesting superstitions and customs survive. The English spoken by these dwellers in " Little England beyond Wales " contains many curious idioms and words and the pronun- ciation of some of the vowels is peculiar. Certain picturesque customs, many of them dating from pre-Reformation times, are still observed, notably in the neighbourhood of Tenby. Such are the sprinkling of persons with dewy evergreens on New Year's morning; the procession of the Cutty Wren on St Stephen's day, and the constructing of little huts at Lammastide by the farm boys and girls. As early as the opening years of the I9th century, cripples and ophthalmic patients were in the habit of visiting the ancient hermitage at St Gowan's Head to bathe in its sacred well; and Richard Fenton, the county historian alludes (c. 1808) to the many crutches left at St Gowan's chapel by grateful devotees. Belief in ghosts, fairies, witches, &c., is still prevalent in the more remote places, and the dress of the fishwives of Langwm near Haverfordwest is highly picturesque with its short skirt, scarlet shawl and buckled shoes. PEMMICAN— PEN AUTHORITIES. — -Richard Fenton, A Historical Tour throng Pembrokeshire (London, 1810); Edward Laws, History of Little Eng land beyond Wales (London, 1888) ; Basil Jones and E. A. Freeman History and Antiquities of St David's (London, 1856), &c. PEMMICAN, a North American Indian (Cree) word for a meat prepared in such a way as to contain the greatest amoun of nourishment in the most compact form. As made by th< Indians it was composed of the lean parts of the meat, dried in the sun, and pounded or shredded and mixed into a paste with melted fat. It is flavoured with acid berries. If kept dry it will keep for an indefinite time, and is thus particularly service able in arctic or other explorations. PEMPHIGUS (Gr. miJ.i£, a bubble), a skin disease, in which large blebs appear, on a red base, containing a clear or yellowish fluid; the blebs occasion much irritation, and when they burst leave raw ulcerated surfaces. The disease is principally known in unhealthy or neglected children. A variety of the malady pemphigus foliaceous, affects the whole body, and gradually proves fatal. Pemphigus of an acute septicaemic type occurs in butchers or those who handle hides, and a diplococcus has been isolated by William Bullock. The treatment is mainly constitutional, by means of good nourishment, warm baths, local sedatives and tonics. In chronic pemphigus, streptococci have been found in the blebs, and the opsonic index was low to streptococci. Improvement has been known to take place on the injection of a vaccine of streptococci. PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen), an instrument for writing or for forming lines with an ink or other coloured fluid. The English word, as well as its equivalents in French (plume) and in German (Feder), originally means a wing-feather, but in ancient times the implements used for producing written characters were not quills. The earliest writing implement was probably the stilus (Gr. -ypa^ij), a pointed bodkin of metal, bone or ivory, used for producing incised or engraved letters on boxwood tablets covered with wax. The calamus (Gr. KaXa/xos) or arundo, the hollow tubular stalk of grasses growing in marshy lands, was the true ancient representative of the modern pen; hollow joints of bamboo were similarly employed. An early specific allusion to the quill pen occurs in the writings of St Isidore of Seville (early part of the 7th century),1 but there is no reason to assume that it was not in use at a still more remote date. The quills still largely employed among Western communities as writing instruments are obtained principally from the wings of the goose (see FEATHER). In 1809 Joseph Bramah devised and patented a machine for cutting up the quill into separate nibs by dividing the barrel into three or even four parts, and cutting these transversely into " two, three, four and some into five lengths." Bramah's invention first familiarized the public with the appearance and use of the nib slipped into a holder. In 1818 Charles Watt obtained a patent for gilding and preparing quills and pens, which may be regarded as the precursor of the gold pen. But a more distinct advance was effected in 1822, when J. I. Hawkins and S. Mordan patented the application of horn and tortoise-shell to the formation of pen-nibs, the points of which were rendered durable by small pieces of diamond, ruby or other very hard substance, or by lapping a small piece of thin sheet gold over the end of the tortoise-shell. Metallic pens, though not unknown in classical times — a bronze pen found at Pompeii is in the Naples Museum — were SteeiPeas ''tt^e use(^ until the igth century and did not become common till near the middle of that cen- tury. It is recorded that a Birmingham split-ring manufacturer, Samuel Harrison, made a steel pen for Dr Joseph Priestley in 1780. Steel pens made and sold in London by a certain Wise in 1803 were in the form of a tube or barrel, the edges of which met to form the slit, while the sides were cut away as in the case of an ordinary quill. Their price was about five shillings each, and as they were hard, stiff and unsatisfactory instruments they were not in great demand. A metallic pen patented by " Instrumenta scribae calamus et penna; ex his enim verba paginis mfiguntur ; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen dividitur in duo." Bryan Donkin in 1808 was made of two separate parts, flat or nearly so, with the flat sides placed opposite each other to form the slit, or alternatively of one piece, flat and not cylindrical as in the usual form, bent to the proper angle for insertion in the tube which constituted the holder. To John Mitchell prob- ably belongs the credit of introducing machine-made pens, about 1822, and James Perry is believed to have been the first maker of steel slip pens. In 1828 Josiah Mason, who had been associated with Samuel Harrison, in the manufacture of split rings, saw Perry's pens on sale in Birmingham, and after examin- ing them saw his way both to improve and to cheapen the process of making them. He therefore put himself in communication with Perry, and the result was that he began to make barrel pens for him in 1828 and slip pens in 1829. Perry, who did much to popularize the steel pen and bring it into general use, in his patent of 1830 sought to obtain greater flexibility by forming a central hole between the points and the shoulders and by cutting one or more lateral slits on each side of the central slit; and Joseph Gillot, in 1831 described an improvement which consisted in forming elongated points on the nibs of the pens. The metal used consists of rolled sheets of cast steel of the finest quality made from Swedish charcoal iron. These sheets, after being cut into strips of suitable width, annealed in a muffle- furnace and pickled in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid to free the surface from oxidized scale, are rolled between steel rollers till they are reduced to ribbons of an even thickness, about ifa in. From these ribbons the pen blanks are next punched out, and then, after being embossed with the name of the maker or other marks, are pierced with the central perforation and the side or shoulder slits by which flexibility is obtained. After another annealing, the blanks, which up to this point are flat, are " raised " or rounded between dies into the familiar semi- cylindrical shape. The next process is to harden and temper them by heating them in iron boxes in a muffle-furnace, plunging them in oil, and then heating them over a fire in a rotating cylindrical vessel till their surfaces attain the dull blue tint characteristic of spring-steel elasticity. Subsequently they are " scoured " in a bath of dilute acid, and polished in a revolving cylinder. The grinding of the points with emery follows, and then the central slit is cut by the aid of two very fine-edged cutters. Finally the pens are again polished, are coloured by being heated over a fire in a revolving cylinder, and in some cases are coated with a varnish of shellac dissolved in alcohol. Birmingham was the first home of the steel-pen industry, and continues its principal centre. The manufacture on a large scale was begun in the United States about 1860 at Camden, N.J., where the Esterbrook Steel Pen Manufacturing Company was incorporated in 1866. Metals other than steel have frequently been suggested by nventors, those most commonly proposed being gold, silver, zinc, German silver, aluminium and aluminium bronze. Dr W. H. Wollaston, it is recorded, had a°'dpeas- a gold pen composed of two thin strips of gold tipped with rhodium, apparently made on the principle patented by Donkin in 1808, and Lord Byron used one in 1810. Gold being extremely resistant to corrosion, pens made of it are very durable, but the metal is too soft for the points, which wear quickly unless protected by some harder material. For this >urpose iridium is widely employed, by fusing the gold round t with a blowpipe. Various devices have been adopted in order to increase the ime for which a pen can be used without a fresh supply of ink. These fall into" two main classes. In one, the form of the nib itself is modified, or some attachment %,"™'r s added, to enlarge the ink capacity; in the other, which is by far the more important, the holder of the pen is utilized as a cistern or reservoir from which ink is supplied o the nib. Pens of the second class, which have the further advantage of being portable, are heard of under the name of ' fountain inkhorns " or " fountain pens " so far back as the jeginning of the i8th century, but it was not till a hundred PENALTY— PENANG years later that inventors applied themselves seriously to their construction. Joseph Bramah patented several plans; one was to employ a tube of silver or other metal so thin that it could be readily squeezed out of shape, the ink within it being thus forced out to the nib, and another was to fit the tube with a piston that could slide down the interior and thus eject ink. In modern fountain pens a feed bar conveys, by capillary action, a fresh supply of ink to replace that which has been left on the paper in the act of writing, means being also provided by which air can pass into the reservoir and fill the space left empty by the outflowing ink. In another form of reservoir pen, which is usually distinguished by the name stylograph, there is no nib, but the ink flows out through a minute hole at the end of the holder, which terminates in a conical point. An iridium needle, held in place by a fine spring, projects slightly through the hole and normally keeps the aperture closed; but when the pen is pressed on the paper, the needle is pushed back and allows a thin stream of ink to flow out. See J. P. Maginnis, " Reservoir, Stylographic and Fountain Pens," Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1905). PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment), in its original meaning, a punishment inflicted for some violation of the law or rule of conduct. Although still freely used in its original sense in such phrases, for example, as " the death penalty," " the penalty of rashness," &c., the more usual meaning attached to the word is that of a pecuniary mulct. Penalty is used specifically for a sum of money recovered by virtue of a penal statute, or re- coverable in a court of summary jurisdiction for infringement of a statute. A sum of money agreed upon to be paid in case of non-performance of a condition in a bond or in breach of a contract or any stipulation of it is also termed a penalty (see DAMAGES). PENANCE (Old Fr. penance, fr. Lat. poenitentia, penitence), strictly, repentance of sins. Thus in the Douai version of the New Testament the Greek word jueravoia is rendered " penance," where the Authorized Version has " repentance." The two words, similar in their derivation and original sense, have however come to be symbolical of conflicting views of the essence of repentance, arising out of the controversy as to the respective merits of " faith " and " good works." The Reformers, uphold- ing the doctrine of justification by faith, held that repentance consisted in a change of the whole moral attitude of the mind and soul (eiriGTptfcadai, Matt. xiii. 15; Luke xxii. 32), and that the Divine forgiveness followed true repentance and confession to God without any reparation of " works." This is the view generally held by Protestants. In the Roman Catholic Church the sacrament of penance consists of three parts: contritio, confessio, satisfactio. Contrilio is in fact repentance as Protestant theologians understand it, i.e. sorrow for sin arising from love of God, and long before the Reformation the schoolmen debated the question whether complete "contrition" was or was not in itself sufficient to obtain the Divine pardon. The Council of Trent, however, decided that " reconciliation " could not follow such contrition without the other parts of the sacrament, which form part of it (sine sacramenti voto, quod in ilia includatur). Contrition is also distinguished from " attrition " (attritio), i.e. repentance due to fear of punishment. It was questioned whether a state of mind thus produced would suffice for obtaining the benefits of the sacrament; this point was also set at rest by the Council of Trent, which decided that attrition, though not in itself capable of obtaining the justification of the sinner, is also inspired by God and thus disposes the soul to benefit by the grace of the sacrament. The word " penance," applied to the whole sacrament, is also used of the works of satisfaction imposed by the priest on the penitent, i.e. the temporal punishment (poena). This varies with the character and heinousness of the offences com- mitted. In the middle ages " doing penance " was often a process as terrible and humiliating to the penitent as it was possibly edifying to the Church. Public penances have, how- ever, long been abolished in all branches of the Christian Church. (See CONFESSION.) PENANG (Pulau Pinang, i.e. Areca-nut Island), the town and island which, after Singapore, form the most important portion of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. The island is situated in 5° 24' N. and 100° 21' E., and distantabout 2^ m. from the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. The island is about 15^ m. long by loj m. wide at its broadest point. Its area is something over 107 sq. m. The town, which is built on a pro- montory at a point nearest to the mainland, is largely occupied by Chinese and Tamils, though the Malays are also well represented. Behind the town, Penang Hill rises to a height of some 2700 ft., and upon it are built several government and private bungalows. The town possesses a fine European club, a racecourse, and good golf links. Coco-nuts are grown in considerable quantities along the seashore, and rice is cultivated at Balek Pulau and in the interior, but the jungle still spreads over wide areas. Penang has an excellent harbour, but has suffered from its proximity to Singapore. There are a Church of England and a Roman Catholic church in the town, and a training college under the Roman Catholic missionaries of the Societe des Missions Etrangeres at Pulau Tikus, a few miles outside the town. Administration. — Since 1867 Penang has been under the administrative control of a resident councillor who is responsible to the governor of the Straits. He is aided in his duties by officers of the Straits Civil Service. Two unofficial members of the legislative council of the colony, which holds its sittings in Singapore, are nominated by the governor, with the sanction of the secretary of state for the colonies, to represent Penang. Their term of office is for five years. The official name of the island is Prince of Wales Island and that of the town is George- town; neither of these names, however, is in general use. Among the Malays Penang is usually spoken of as Tanjong or " The Cape," on account of the promontory upon which the town is situated. The town is administered by a municipal council composed of ex officio, nominated, and elected members. Population. — The population of Penang at the time of the census of 1901 was 128,830, of whom 85,070 were males (69,210 over and 15,860 under 15 years of age), and 43,760 were females (28,725 over and 15,035 under 15 years of age). The population was composed of 71,462 Chinese, 34,286 Malays, 18,740 Tamils and other natives of India, 1649 Eurasians, 993 Europeans and Americans, and 1699 persons of other nationalities. As in other parts of the Straits Settlements the men are far more numerous than the women. The total population of the settlement of Penang, which includes not only the island but Province Wellesley and the Dindings, was 248,207 in 1901. Shipping. — The number of ships which entered and left the port of Penang during 1906 was 2324 with an aggregate tonnage of 2,868,459. Of these 1802 were British with an aggregate tonnage of 1 ,966,286. These figures reveal a considerable falling-off during the past decade, the number of vessels entering and leaving the port in 1898 being 5114 with an aggregate tonnage of 3,761,094. This is mainly due to the construction of the railway which runs from a point on the mainland opposite to Penang, through the Federated Malay States of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sembilan to Malacca, and has diverted to other ports and eventually to Singapore much of the coastal traffic which formerly visited Penang. Finance and Trade. — The revenue of Penang, that is to say, not only of the island but of the entire settlement, amounted in 1906 to $6,031,917, of which $2,014,033 was derived from the revenue farms for the collection of import duties on opium, wine and spirits; $160,047 from postal revenue; $119,585 from land revenue; $129,151 from stamps. The expenditure for 1906 amounted to $5,072,406, of which $836,097 was spent on administrative establishments, $301,252 on the upkeep of existing public works; $415,175 on the construction of works and buildings, and of new roads, streets, bridges, &c. The imports in 1906 were valued at $94,546,112; the exports at $90,709,225. Of the imports $57,880,889 worth came from the United Kingdom or from British possessions or protectorates; $23,937,737 worth came from foreign countries; and $3,906,241 from the Dindings, Malacca and Singapore. Of the exports, $23,122,947 went to the United Kingdom, or to British possessions or protectorates; $37,671,033 went to foreign countries; and $2,754,238 went to the Dindings, Malacca or Singapore. History — Penang was founded on the i7th of July 1786, having been ceded to the East India Company by the Sultan of Kedah in 1785 by an agreement with Captain Light, for an annuity of $10,000 for eight years. In 1791 the subsidy was PENARTH— PENATES changed to $6ooc, in perpetuity; for some years later this was raised to $10,000, and is still annually paid. This final addition was made when Province Wellesley was purchased by the East India Company for $2000 in 1798. At the time of the cession Penang was almost uninhabited. In 1796 it was made a penal settlement, and 700 convicts were transferred thither from the Andaman Islands. In 1805 Penang was made a separate presidency, ranking with Bombay and Madras; and when in 1826 Singapore and Malacca were incorporated with it, Penang continued to be the seat of government. In 1829 Penang was reduced from the rank of a presidency, and eight years later the town of Singapore was made the capital of the Settlements. In 1867 the Straits Settlements were created a Crown colony, in which Penang was included. See Straits Settlements Blue Book 1906 (Singapore, 1907); The Straits Directory (Singapore, 1907) ; Sir Frank Swettenham, British Malaya (London, 1906). (H. CL.) PENARTH, an urban district and seaport in the southern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales, 166 m. by rail from London, picturesquely situated on rising ground on the south side of the mouth of the Ely opposite Cardiff, from which it is 4 m. distant by rail and 2 m. by steamer. Pop. (1901), 14,228. The place derives its name from two Welsh words, " pen," a head, and " garth," an enclosure. Penarth was a small and unimpor- tant village until a tidal harbour at the mouth of the Ely was opened in 1859, and a railway, 6 m. long, was made about the same time, connecting the harbour with the Taff Vale railway at Radyr. A dock, authorized in 1857, was opened in 1865, when all three undertakings, which had cost £775,000, were leased in perpetuity to the Taff Vale Railway Company. The monopoly which the Bute Docks at Cardiff had previously enjoyed in shipping coal from the valleys of the Taff and Rhondda was thus terminated. The town is frequented in summer as a bathing-place, and the Rhaetic beds at the head are of special interest to geologists. On this head there stood an old church, probably Norman, which served as a landmark for sailors. The remains of an old chantry have been converted into a barn. Besides two Established and one Roman Catholic church, the principal buildings of Penarth are its various Nonconformist chapels, intermediate and technical school (1894), custom house, dock offices, and Turner House with a private art gallery which is thrown open on certain days to the public. Three miles to the west is Dinas Powis Castle. In 1880-1883 gardens were laid out along the cliff, in 1894 a promenade and landing-pier with a length of 630 ft. were constructed, and in 1900 a marine subway open at all times for foot passengers was made under the river Ely. The dock, as first constructed, comprised 17! acres, was extended in 1884 at a cost of £250,000, and now covers 23 acres with a basin of 3 acres. It is 2900 ft. in length, has a minimum depth of 26 ft., and is furnished with every modern appliance for the export of coal, of which from 20,000 to 30,000 tons can be stored in the sidings near by. The Penarth-Ely tidal harbour has a water area of 55 acres with a minimum depth of 20 ft., and a considerable import trade is carried on here mainly by coasting vessels; but as only one of its sides has wharves (about 3000 ft. along) scarcely more than 5 % of the total shipping of the port is done here. It has commo- dious warehouses, also tanks to hold about 6000 tons of oil. PENATES (from Lat. penus, eatables, food), Roman gods of the store-room and kitchen. The store-room over which they presided was, in old times, beside the atrium, the room which served as kitchen, parlour, and bedroom in one; but in later times the store-room, was in the back part of the house. It was sanctified by the presence of the Penates, and none but pure and chaste persons might enter it, just as with the Hindus the kitchen is sacred and inviolable. They had no individual names, but were always known under the general designation, Penates. Closely associated with the Penates were the Lares (g.v.) another species of domestic deity, who seem to have been the deified spirits of deceased ancestors. But while each family had two Penates it had but one Lar. In the household shrine the image of the Lar (dressed in a toga) was placed between the two images of the Penates, which were represented as dancing and elevating a drinking-horn in token of joy and plenty. The three images together were sometimes called Penates, sometimes Lares, and either name was used metaphori- cally for "home." The shrine stood originally in the atrium, but when the hearth and the kitchen were separated from the atrium and removed to the back of the house, and meals were taken in an upper storey, the position of the shrine was also shifted. In the houses at Pompeii it is sometimes in the kitchen, sometimes in the rooms. In the later empire it was placed behind the house-door, and a taper or lamp was kept burning before it. But the worship in the interior of the house was also kept up even into Christian times; it was forbidden by an ordinance of Theodosius (A.D. 392). The old Roman used, in company with his children and slaves, to offer a morning sacrifice and prayer to his household gods. Before meals the blessing of the gods was asked, and after the meal, but before dessert, there was a short silence, and a portion of food was placed on the hearth and burned. If the hearth and the images were not in the eating-room, either the images were brought and put on the table, or before the shrine was placed a table on which were set a salt-cellar, food and a burning lamp. Three days in the month, viz. the Calends, Nones and Ides (i.e. the first, the fifth or seventh, and the thirteenth or fifteenth), were set apart for special family worship, as were also the Caristia (Feb. 22) and the Saturnalia in December. On these days as well as on such occasions as birthdays, marriages, and safe returns from journeys, the images were crowned and offerings made to them of cakes, honey, wine, incense, and sometimes a pig. As each family had its own Penates, so the state, as a collection of families, had its public Penates. Intermediate between the worship of the public and private Penates were probably the rites (sacra) observed by each clan (gens) or collec- tion of families supposed to be descended from a common ancestor. The other towns of Latium had their public Penates as well as Rome. The sanctuary of the whole Latin league was at Lavinium. To these Penates at Lavinium the Roman priests brought yearly offerings, and the Roman consuls, praetors and dictators sacrificed both when they entered on and when they laid down their office. To them, too, the generals sacrificed before departing for their province. Alba Longa, the real mother-city of Latium, had also its ancient Penates, and the Romans maintained the worship on the Alban mount long after the destruction of Alba Longa. The Penates had a temple of their own at Rome. It was on the Velia near the Forum, and has by some been identified with the round vestibule of the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. In this and many other temples the Penates were represented by two images of youths seated holding spears. The Penates were also worshipped in the neigh- bouring temple at Vesta. To distinguish the two worships it has been supposed that the Penates in the former temple were those of Latium, while those in the temple of Vesta were the Penates proper of Rome. Certainly the worship of the Penates, whose altar was the hearth and to whom the kitchen was sacred, was closely connected with that of Vesta, goddess of the domestic hearth. The origin and nature of the Penates was a subject of much discussion to the Romans themselves. They were traced to the mysterious worship of Samothrace; Dardanus, it was said, took the Penates from Samothrace to Troy, and after the destruction of Troy, Aeneas brought them to Italy and established them at Lavinium. From Lavinium Ascanius carried the worship to Alba Longa, and from Alba Longa it was brought to Rome. Equally unsatisfactory with this attempt to connect Roman religion with Greek legend are the vague and mystic speculations in which the later Romans indulged respecting the nature of the Penates. Some said they were the great gods to whom we owe breath, body and reason, viz. Jupiter representing the middle ether, Juno the lowest air and the earth, and Minerva the highest ether, to whom some added Mercury as the god of speech (Servius, on Aen. ii. 296; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 4, 8; Arnobius, Adv. Nat. iii. 40). Others identified them with Apollo 86 PENCIL— PENDA and Neptune (Macrob. iii. 4, 6; Arnob. loc. cit.; Servius, on Aen. iii. 1 19). The Etruscans held the Penates to be Ceres, Pales and Fortuna, to whom others added Genius Jovialis (Servius on Aen. ii. 325; Arnob. loc. cit.). The late writer Martianus Capella records the view that heaven was divided into sixteen regions, in the first of which were placed the Penates, along with Jupiter, the Lares, &c. More fruitful than these misty speculations is the suggestion, made by the ancients themselves, that the worship of these family gods sprang from the ancient Roman custom (common to many savage tribes) of burying the dead in the house. But this would account for the worship of the Lares rather than of the Penates. A comparison with other primitive religious beliefs suggests the conjecture that the Penates may be a remnant of fetishism or animism. The Roman genii seem certainly to have been fetishes and the Penates were perhaps originally a species of genii. Thus the Penates, as simple gods of food, are probably much more ancient than deities like Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo and Minerva. With the Penates we may compare the kindly household gods of old Germany; they too had their home on the kitchen hearth- and received offerings of food and clothing. In the castle of Hudemiihlen (Hanover) there was a kobold for whom a cover was always set on the table. In Lapland each house had one or more spirits. The souls of the dead are regarded as house- spirits by the Russians; they are represented as dwarfs, and are served with food and drink. Each house in Servia has its patron-saint. In the mountains of Mysore every house has its bhuta or guardian deity, to whom prayer and sacrifices are offered. The Chinese god of the kitchen presents some curious analogies to the Penates: incense and candles are burnt before him on the first and fifteenth of the month; some families burn incense and candles before him daily; and on great festivals, one of which is at the winter solstice (nearly corresponding to the Saturnalia), he is served with cakes, pork, wine, incense, &c., which are placed on a table before him. See ROMAN RELIGION. Q. G. Fs. ; X.) PENCIL (Lat. penkillus, brush, literally little tail), a name originally applied to a small fine-pointed brush used in painting, and still employed to denote the finer camel's-hair and sable brushes used by artists, but now commonly signifying solid cones or rods of various materials used for writing and drawing. It has been asserted that a manuscript of Theophilus, attributed to the 13th century, shows signs of having been ruled with a black-lead pencil; but the first distinct allusion occurs in the treatise on fossils by Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1565), who describes an article for writing formed of wood and a piece of lead, or, as he believed, an artificial composition called by some stimmi anglicanum (English antimony). The famous Borrowdale mine in Cumberland having been discovered about that time, it is probable that we have here the first allusion to that great find of graphite. While the supply of the Cumberland mine lasted, the material for English pencils consisted simply of the native graphite as taken from the mine. The pieces were sawn into thin sheets, which again were cut into the slender square rods forming the " lead " of the pencil. Strenuous efforts were made on the continent of Europe and in England to enable manufacturers to become independent of the product of the Cumberland mine. In Nuremberg, where the great pencil factory of the Faber family (q.v.) was established in 1760, pencils were made from pulverized graphite cemented into solid blocks by means of gums, resins, glue, sulphur and other such substances, but none of these preparations yielded useful pencils. In the year 1795 N. J. Cont6 (q.v.), of Paris, devised the process by which now all black-lead pencils, and indeed pencils of all sorts, are manufactured. In 1843 William Brockedon patented a process for compressing pure black-lead powder into solid compact blocks by which he was enabled to use the dust, fragments, and cuttings of fine Cumberland lead. Brockedon's process would have proved successful but the exhaustion of the Borrowdale supplies and the excellence of Conte's process rendered it more of scientific interest than of commercial value. The pencil leads prepared by the Conte process consist of a mixture of graphite and clay. The graphite, having been pulver- ized and subjected to any necessary purifying processes, is " floated " through a series of settling tanks, in each of which the comparatively heavy particles sink, and only the still finer particles are carried over. That which sinks in the last of the series is in a condition of extremely fine division, and is used for pencils of the highest quality. The clay, which must be free from sand and iron, is treated in the same manner. Clay and graphite so prepared are mixed together in varying propor- tions with water to a paste, passed repeatedly through a grinding mill, then placed in bags and squeezed in a hydraulic press till they have the consistency of stiff dough, in which condition they are ready for forming pencil rods. For this purpose the plastic mass is placed in a strong upright cylinder, from which a plunger or piston, moved by a screw, forces it out through a perforated base-plate in a continuous ' thread. This thread is finally divided into suitable lengths, which are heated in a closed crucible for some hours. The two factors which determine the comparative hardness and blackness of pencils are the proportions of graphite and clay in the leads and the heat to which they are raised in the crucible. According as the proportion of graphite is greater and the heat lower the pencil is softer and of deeper black streak. The wood in which the leads are cased is pencil cedar from Juniperus virginiana for the best qualities, and pine for the cheaper ones. A board of the selected wood, having a thickness about equal to half the diameter of the finished pencil and as wide as four or six pencils, is passed through a machine which smooths the surface and cuts round or square grooves to receive the leads. The leads being placed in the grooves the board is covered with another similarly grooved board, and the two are fastened together with glue. When dry they are taken to rapidly revolving cutters which remove the wood between the leads. The individual pencils thus formed only need to be finished by being dyed and varnished and stamped with name, grade, &c. Instead of wood, paper has been tried for the casings, rolled on in narrow strips which are torn off to expose fresh lead as the point becomes worn down by use. Black pencils of an inferior quality are made from the dust of graphite melted up with sulphur and run into moulds. Such, with a little tallow added to give them softness, are the pencils commonly used by carpenters. Coloured pencils consist of a mixture of clay, with appropriate mineral colouring matter, wax, and tallow, treated by the Conte method, as in making lead pencils. In indelible and copying pencils the colouring matter is an aniline preparation mixed with clay and gum. The mixture not only makes a streak which adheres to the paper, but, when the writing is moistened with water, it dissolves and assumes the appearance and properties of an ink. PENDA, king of Mercia (d. 654 or 655), son of Pybba, probably came to the throne in 626, but it is doubtful whether he actually became king of Mercia until 633, the year of the defeat and death of Edwin of Northumbria. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle he was eighty years old at his death, but the energy of his administration and the evidence with regard to the ages of his children and relatives render it almost impossible. In 628 the Chronicle records a battle between him and the West Saxons at Cirencester in that year. In 633 Penda and Ceadwalla ovei threw Edwin at Hatfield Chase; but after the defeat of the Welsh king at Oswald at " Hefenfelth " in 634, Mercia seems to have been for a time subject to Northumbria. In . 642 Penda slew Oswald at a place called Maerfeld. He was continually raiding Northumbria and once almost succeeded in reducing Bamborough. He drove Cenwalh of Wessex, who had divorced his sister, from his throne. In 654 he attacked the East Angles, and slew their king Anna (see EAST ANGLIA). In 654 or 655 he invaded Northumbria in spite of the attempts of Oswio to buy him off, and was defeated and slain on the banks of the " Winwaed." In the reign of Penda the districts corresponding to Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire were probably acquired, and he established his son Peada as a dependent prince in Middle Anglia. Although a pagan, he allowed his daughter Cyneburg to marry Alchfrith, the son of PENDANT — PENDLETON, E. 87 Oswio, and it was in his reign that Christianity was introduced into Middle Anglia by his son Peada. See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896) ; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899). PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang), any hang- ing object, such as a jewel or other ornament hanging from a brooch, bracelet, &c., or the loose end of a knight's belt left hanging after passing through the buckle, and terminating in an ornamental end. In architecture the word is applied to an elongated boss, either moulded or foliated, such as hangs down from the intersection of ribs, especially in fan tracery, or at the end of hammer beams. Sometimes long corbels, under the wall pieces, have been so called. The name has also been given to the large masses depending from enriched ceilings, in the later works of the Pointed style. " Pendants " or " Pendent posts " are those timbers which are carried down the side of the wall from the plate, and receive the hammer braces. PENDENTIVE, the term given in architecture to the bridging across the angles of a square hall, so as to obtain a circular base for a dome or drain. This may be done by corbelling out in the angles, in which case the pendentive may be a portion of a hemisphere of which the half diagonal of the square hall is the radius; or by throwing a series of arches across the angle, each ring as it rises advancing in front of the one below and being carried by it during its construction; in this case the base obtained is octagonal, so that corbels or small pendentives are required for each angle of the octagon, unless as in the church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople a portion of the dome is set back; or again, by a third method, by sinking a semicircular niche in the angle. The first system was that employed in St Sophia at Constantinople, and in Byzantine churches generally, also in the domed churches of Perigord and Aquitaine. The second is found in the Sassanian palaces of Serbistan and Firuzabad, and in medieval architecture in England, France and Germany, where the arches are termed " squinches." The third system is found in the mosque at Damascus, and was often adopted in the churches in Asia Minor. There is still another method in which the pendentive and cupola are part of the same hemispherical dome, and in this case the ring courses lie in vertical instead of horizontal planes, examples of which may be found in the vault of Magnesia on Maeander in Asia Minor, and in the tomb at Valence known as le pendentif de Valence. The problem is one which has taxed the ingenuity of many builders in ancient times; the bas-reliefs found at Nimrud show that in the pth century B.C. domes were evidently built over square halls, and must have been carried on pendentives of some kind. FENDER, SIR JOHN (1816-1896), British cable pioneer, was born in the Vale of Leven, Scotland, on the loth of September 1816, and after attending school in Glasgow became a successful merchant in textile fabrics in that city and in Manchester. His name is chiefly known in connexion with submarine cables, of which on the commercial side he was an important promoter. He was one of the 345 contributors who each risked a thousand pounds in the Transatlantic Cable in 1857, and when the Atlantic Telegraph Company was ruined by the loss of the 1865 cable he formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company to continue the work, but it was not till he had given his personal guarantee for a quarter of a million pounds that the makers would under- take the manufacture of a new cable. But in the end he was justified, and telegraphic communication with America became a commercial success. Subsequently he fostered cable enter- prise in all parts of the world, and at the time of his death, which occurred at Footscray Place, Kent, on the yth of July 1896, he controlled companies having a capital of 15 millions sterling and owning 73,640 nautical miles of cables. He repre- sented Wick Burghs in parliament from 1872 to 1885 and from 1892 to 1896. He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1888 and was pro- moted in 1892 to be G.C.M.G. His eldest son James (b. 1841), who was M.P. for Mid Northamptonshire in 1895-1900, was created a baronet in 1897; and his third son, John Denison (b. 1855), was created a K.C.M.G. in 1901. PENDLESIDE SERIES, in geology, a series of shales between the upper division of the Carboniferous Limestone and the Millstone Grits occurring in the Midlands between Stoke-on- Trent and Settle. It consists of black limestones at the base, followed by black shales with calcareous nodules, which pass into sandy shales with ganister-like sandstones. In places the series attains a thickness of 1500-1000 ft., and where it is thickest the Millstone Grits also attain their maximum thickness. The peculiarities of the series, which is characterized by a rich fauna with Productus giganteus, P. slriatus, Dibunophyllum, Cyalhaxonia cornu and Lonsdaleia floriformis, can be best studied on the western slope of Pendle Hill, Lancashire, in the valley of the Hodder, dividing the counties of Lancashire and Yorkshire, at Mam Tor and the Edale valley in Derbyshire, and Morredge, the Dane valley in north Staffordshire, Bagillt and Teilia in North Wales, and Scarlett and Poolvash, Isle of Man. The limestones at the base are hard, compact and fissile, often cherty, and vary much in the amount of calcium carbonate which they contain, at times passing into calcareous shales. These limestones and shales contain a distinct fauna which appears for the first time in the Midlands, characterized by Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella laevis, Posidonomya Becheri, Posidonomya membranacea, Nomismoceras rotiforme and Glyphioceras slriatus. Immediately below beds with this fauna are thin limestones with Prolecaniles compressus, Slrobo- ceras bisidcatus, many trilobites, and corals referable to the genera Cyathaxonia, Zaphrentis and Amplexizaphrentis. The fauna characteristic of the Carboniferous Limestone becomes largely extinct and is replaced by a shale fauna, but the oncoming of the age of Goniatites is shown by the presence in the upper part of the Carboniferous Limestone of numerous species and genera of this group, Glyphioceras creneslria being the most common and having the wider horizontal range. The whole Pendleside series can be divided into zones by the different species of Goniatites. At the base Prolecanites com- pressus characterizes the passage beds between the Carboniferous Limestone and the Pendlesides; Nomismoceras rotiforme and Glyphioceras slrialus are found in a narrow zone immediately above. Then Glyphioceras reticulatum appears and reaches its maximum, and is succeeded by Glyphioceras diadema and Glyphioceras spirals, while immediately below the Millstone Grits Glyphioceras bilingue appears and passes up in that series. The Millstone Grits are characterized by the presence of Gaslrioceras Lisleri. The Pendleside series is therefore characterized by an Upper Carboniferous fauna, Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella laevis and some other species which pass up right through the Coal Measures appearing for the first time, and the base of the series marks the division between Upper and Lower Carboniferous times. The series passes eastward into Belgium and thence into Germany, when the same fossil zones are found in the basin of Namur and the valley of the Dill. Traced westward the series is well developed in Co. Dublin and on the west coast of Cos. Clare and Limerick. There can be no doubt that the Pendleside series of the Midlands represents the Lower Culm of Codden Hill, north Devon, and the Lower Culm of the continent of Europe. The faunas in these localities have the same biological succession as in the midlands. See Wheelton Hind and J. Allen Howe, Quart. Journ. Geog. Soc. vol. Ivii. (1901), and numerous other papers by the first-named author. (W. Hi.) PENDLETON, EDMUND (1721-1803), American lawyer and statesman, was born, of English Royalist descent, in Caroline county, Virginia, on the 9th of September 1721. He was self-educated, but after reading law and being admitted to the bar (1744) his success was immediate. He served in the Virginia House of Burgesses from 1752 until the organization of the state government in 1776, was the recognized leader of the conservative Whigs, and took a leading part in opposing the British government. He was a member of the Virginia committee of correspondence in 1773, in 1774 was president of the Virginia provincial convention, and a member of the first 88 PENDLETON, G. H.— PENGUIN Continental Congress. In 1776, as president of the provincial convention, which adopted a state constitution for Virginia, he drew up the instructions to the Virginia members of Congress directing them to advocate the independence of the American colonies. In the same year he became president of the Virginia committee of safety, and in October was chosen the first speaker of the House of Delegates. With Jefferson and Chan- cellor George Wythe he drew up a new law code for Virginia. He was president of the court of chancery in 1777-1788, and from 1779 until his death was president of the Virginia court of appeals. He was an enthusiastic advocate of the Federal consti- tution, and in 1 788 exerted strong influence to secure its ratifi- cation by his native state. He was a leader of the Federalist party in Virginia until his death at Richmond, Va., on the 23rd of October 1803. PENDLETON, GEORGE HUNT (1825-1889), American lawyer and legislator, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 25th of July 1825. He was educated at the university of Heidelberg, studied law, was admitted to the bar, and began to practise at Cincinnati. He was a member of the Ohio Senate in 1854 and 1855, and from 1857 to 1865 was a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives, in which he opposed the war policy of Lincoln. In 1864 he was the Democratic candidate for vice-president. After leaving Congress he became one of the earliest champions of the " Ohio idea " (which he is said to have originated), demanding that the government should pay the principal of its s~2o-year 6% bonds in the " greenback " currency instead of in coin. The agricultural classes of the West regarded this as a means of relief, and Pendleton became their recognized leader and a candidate for the Democratic nomination to the presidency in 1868, but he failed to receive the requisite two-thirds majority. In 1869 he was the Democratic candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated by Rutherford B. Hayes. For the next ten years he devoted himself to the practice of law and to the supervision of the Kentucky Railroad Company, of which he had become president in 1869. From 1879 to 1885 he was a Democratic member of the United States Senate, and introduced the so-called Pendleton Act of 1883 for reforming the civil service, hostility to which lost him his seat in 1885. He was minister to Germany from 1885 to the summer of 1889, and died at Brussels on the 24th of November 1889. PENELOPE, in Greek legend, wife of Odysseus, daughter of Icarius and the nymph Periboea. During the long absence of her husband after the fall of Troy many chieftains of Ithaca and the islands round about became her suitors; and, to rid herself of the importunities of the wooers, she bade them wait till she had woven a winding-sheet for old Laertes, the father of Odysseus. But every night she undid the piece which she had woven by day. This she did for three years, till her maids revealed the secret. She was relieved by the arrival of Odysseus, who returned after an absence of twenty years, and slew the wooers. The character of Penelope is less favourable in late writers than in the Homeric story. During her husband's absence she is said to have become the mother of Pan by Hermes, and Odysseus, on his return, repudiated her as unfaithful (Herodotus ii. 145 and schol.). She thereupon withdrew to Sparta and thence to Mantineia, where she died and where her tomb was shown. According to another account she married Telegonus the son of Odysseus and Circe, after he had killed his father, and dwelt with him in the island of Aeala or in the Islands of the Blest (Hyginus, Feb. 127). PENGELLY, WILLIAM (1812-1894), English geologist and anthropologist, was born at East Looe in Cornwall on the I2th of January 1812, the son of the captain of a small coasting vessel. He began life as a sailor, after an elementary education in his native village, but in 1828 he abandoned a seafaring life. He had developed a passion for learning, and about 1836 he removed to Torquay and started a school; in 1846 he became a private tutor in mathematics and natural science. Geology had in early years attracted his attention, but it was not until he was about 30 years of age that he began seriously to cultivate the study. In 1837 he was instrumental in the reorganization of the Torquay Mechanics' Institute, in 1844 mainly owing to his energy the Torquay Natural History Society was founded, and in 1862 he assisted in founding the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Literature, Science and Art. Meanwhile he had been occupied in collecting fossils from many parts of Devon and Cornwall, and in 1860 the Baroness Burdett- Coutts acquired and presented them to the Oxford Museum, where they form "The Pengelly Collection." Through the generosity of the same lady he was called upon to examine the lignites and clays of Bovey Tracey, in conjunction with Dr Oswald Heer, who undertook the determination of the plant-remains. Their report was published by the Royal Society (1862), and Pengelly was elected F.R.S. in 1863. He aided in the investigations of the Brixham bone-cavern from the date of its discovery in 1858, the full report being issued in 1873; and he was the main explorer of Kent's Hole, Torquay, and from 1864 for more than fifteen years he laboured with unflagging energy in examining and recording the exact position of the numerous organic remains that were disinterred during a systematic investigation of this cave, carried on with the aid of grants from the British Association. He first attended the British Association at the Cheltenham meeting in 1856, and was present at subsequent meetings (except that at Montreal in 1884) until 1889. His observations assisted in establishing the important fact of the contemporaneity of Palaeolithic man with various Pleistocene mammalia, such as the mammoth, cave-bear, cave-lion, &c. He was awarded the Lyell medal by the Geological Society of London in 1886. He died at Torquay on the i6th of March 1894. See Memoir of William Pengelly, edited by his daughter Hester Pengelly, with a summary of his scientific work by the Rev. Pro- fessor T. G. Bonney (1897). PENGUIN, the name of a flightless sea-bird,1 but, so far as is known, first given to one inhabiting the seas of Newfound- land as in Hore's " Voyage to Cape Breton," 1536 (Hakluyt, Researches, iii. 168-170), which subsequently became known as the great auk or garefowl (q.v.) ; though the French equiva- lent Pingouin* preserves its old application, the word penguin is by English ornithologists always used for certain birds inhabiting the Southern Ocean, called by the French Manckots, the Sphenistidae of ornithologists. For a long while their position was very much misunderstood, some systematists having placed them with the Alcidae or Auks, to which they bear only a relationship of analogy, as indeed had been perceived by a few ornithologists, who recognized in the penguins a very distinct order, Impennes. L. Stejneger (Standard Nat. Hist. vol. iv., Boston, 1885) gave the Impennes independent rank equivalent to the rest of Carinate birds; M. A. Menzbier (Vergl. Osteal, d. Penguine, Moscow, 1887) took a similar view; M. Furbringer was first to show their relation to Procellariformes, and this view is now generally accepted. 1 Of the three derivations assigned to this name, the first is by Drayton in 1613 (Polyolbion, Song 9), where it is said to be the Welsh pen gwyn, or 'white head"; the second, which seems to meet with Littr6's approval, deduces it from the Latin pinguis (fat), which idea has given origin to the German name, Fettganse, for these birds; the third supposes it to be a corruption of " pin-wing " (Ann. Nat. History, 4th series, vol. iv. p. 133), meaning a bird that has under- gone the operation of pinioning or, as in one part at least of England it is commonly called, " pin-winging." The first hypothesis has been supported on the ground that Breton sailors speaking a language closely allied to Welsh were acquainted with the great auk, and that the conspicuous white patches on the head of that bird justified the name " white head." To the second hypothesis Skeat (Dictionary, p. 433) objects that it " will not account for the suffix -in, and is therefore wrong; besides which the ' Dutchmen ' [who were asserted to be the authors of the name] turn out to be Sir Francis Drake " and his men. In support of the third hypothesis Mr Reeks wrote (Zoologist, 2nd series, p. 1854) that the people in Newfoundland who used to meet with this bird always pronounced its name "pin wing." Skeat's inquiry (loc. fit.), whether the name may not after all be South American, is to be answered in the negative, since, so far as evidence goes, it was given to the North- American bird before the South-American was known in Europe. 2 Gorfou has also been used by some French writers, being a corruption of Geirfugl or Garefowl. PENHALLOW— PENINGTON 89 There is a total want of quills in their wings, which are incapable of flexure, though they move freely at the shoulder-joint, and some at least of the species occasionally make use of them for progressing on land. In the water they are most efficient paddles. The plumage, which clothes the whole body, generally consists of small scale-like feathers, many of them consisting only of a simple shaft without the development of barbs; but several of the species have the head decorated with long cirrhous tufts, and in some the tail-quills, which are very numerous, are also long.1 In standing these birds preserve an upright position, sometimes resting on the " tarsus " 2 alone, but in walking or running this is kept neaihr vertical, and their weight is supported by the toes alone. .-r The most northerly limit of the penguins' range in the Atlantic is Tristan d'Acunha, and in the Indian Ocean Amsterdam Island, but they also occur off the Cape of Good Hope and along the coast of Australia, as well as on the south and east of New Zealand, while in the Pacific one species at least extends along the west coast of South America and to the Galapagos; but north of the equator none are found. In the breeding season they resort to the most desolate lands in higher southern latitudes, and indeed have been met with as far to the south- ward as navigators have penetrated. Possibly the Falkland Islands are richest in species, though, as individuals, they King- Penguin (Aptenodytes pennanti). are not nearly so numerous there as in many other places. The food of penguins consists of crustaceans, cephalopods and other molluscs, varied by fish and vegetable matter. The birds form immense breeding colonies, known as " rookeries." The nest of grass, leaves, or where vegetation is scanty of stones or rubbish, is placed on the ground or in holes. Two chalky white or greenish eggs are laid. The young penguins, clad in thick down, are born blind and are fed by the parents for an unusually long time before taking to the water. Penguins bite savagely when molested, but are easily trained and display considerable intelligence. The Spheniscidae have been divided into at least eight genera, but three, or at most four, seem to be all that are needed, and 1 The pterylographical characters of the penguins are well described by A. Hyatt (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 1871). A. D. Bartlett has observed (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1879, pp. 6-9) that, instead of moulting in the way that birds ordinarily do, penguins, at least in passing from the immature to the adult dress, cast off the short scale-like feathers from their wings in a manner that he compares to " the shedding of the skin in a serpent." 2 The three metatarsals in the penguins are not, as in other birds, united for the whole of their length, but only at'the extremities, thus preserving a portion of their originally distinct existence, a fact probably attributable to arrest of development, since the researches of C. Gegenbaur show that the embryos of all birds, so far as is known, possess these bones in an independent condition. three can be well distinguished, as pointed out by E. Coues in Proc. Acad. of Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, 1872 (pp. 170-212), by anatomical as well as by external characters. They are: (i) Aptenodytes, easily recognized by its long and thin bill, slightly decurved, from which Pygoscelis, as M. Watson has shown, is hardly distinguishable; (2) Eudyptes, in which the bill is much shorter and rather broad; and (3) Spheniscus, in which the shortish bill is compressed and the maxilla ends in a conspi- cuous hook. Aptenodytes contains the largest species, among them those known as the " Emperor " and " King " penguins A. patagonica and A. longirostris. Three others belong also to this genus, if Pygoscelis be not recognized, but they seem not to require any particular remark. Eudyptes, containing the crested penguins, known to sailors as " Rock-hoppers " or" Macaronis," would appear to have five species, and Sphenis- cus four, among which S. mendiculus, which occurs in the Galapagos, and therefore has the most northerly range of the whole group, alone needs notice here. (A. N.) The generic and specific distribution of the penguins is the subject of an excellent essay by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in the Annales des sciences naturelles for 1880 (vol. ix. art. 9, pp. 23-81); see also the Records of the Antarctic Expedition, 1901—1904. PENHALLOW, SAMUEL (1665-1726), American colonist and historian, was born at St Mabon, Cornwall, England, on the 2nd of July 1665. From 1683 to 1686 he attended a school at Newington Green (near London) conducted by the Rev. Charles Morton (1627-1698), a dissenting clergyman, with whom he emigrated to Massachusetts in 1686. He was commissioned by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England to study the Indian languages and to preach to the Indians; but he was soon diverted from this work. Removing to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, he there married a daughter of John Cutt (1625-1681), president of the province of New Hampshire in 1679-1680, a successful merchant and mill-owner, and thus came into possession of considerable property (including much of the present site of Portsmouth). In 1700 he was speaker of the Assembly and in 1702 became a member of the Provincial Council, but was suspended by Lieut. -Governor George Vaughan (1676-1724). Penhallow, however, was sustained by Governor Samuel Shute (1662-1742), and Vaughan was removed from office in 1716. In 1714 Penhallow was appointed a justice of the superior court of judicature, and from 1717 until his death was chief justice of that court; and he also served as treasurer of the province in 1699- 1726, and as secretary of the province in 1714-1726. He died at Portsmouth on the 2nd of December 1726. He wrote a valuable History of the War of New England with the Eastern Indians, or a Narrative of their Continued Perfidy and Cruelty (1726; reprinted in the Collections of the New Hampshire Historical Society, vol. i., 1824, and again at Cincinnati in 1859), which covers the period from 1703 to 1726, and is a standard contem- porary authority. PENINGTON, SIR ISAAC (c. 1587-1661), lord mayor of London, eldest son of Robert Penington, a London fishmonger, was born probably in 1587. His father besides his London business had landed estates in Norfolk and Suffolk, which Isaac inherited in addition to a property in Buckinghamshire which he himself purchased. In 1638 Isaac became an alderman and high sheriff of London. In 1640 he was elected to the House of Commons as member for the city of London, and immediately took a prominent place among the Puritan party. In 1642 he was elected lord mayor of London, but retained his seat in parliament by special leave of the Commons; and he was elected lord mayor for a second term in the following year, continuing while in office to raise large sums of money for the opposition to the Court party. From 1642 to 1645 he was lieutenant of the Tower, in which capacity he was present at the execution of Laud; but, though one of the commissioners for the trial of Charles I., he did not sign the death warrant. After the king's death Penington served on Cromwell's council of state, and on several committees of government. His services were rewarded by considerable grants of land, and a 9o PENINSULA— PENINSULAR WAR knighthood conferred in 1649. He was tried and convicted of treason at the Restoration, and died while a prisoner in the Tower on the iyth of December 1661. He was twice married, and had six children by his first wife, several of whom became Quakers. ISAAC PENINGTON (1616-1679), Sir Isaac's eldest son, was one of the most notable of the 17th-century Quakers. He was early troubled by religious perplexities, which found expres- sion in many voluminous writings. No less than eleven religious works, besides a political treatise in defence of democratic principles, were published by him in eight years. He belonged for a time to the sect of the Independents; but about 1657, influenced probably by the preaching of George Fox, whom he heard in Bedfordshire, Penington and his wife joined the Society of Friends. His wife was daughter and heiress of Sir John Proude, and widow of Sir William Springett, so that the worldly position of the couple made them a valuable acquisition to the Quakers. Isaac Penington was himself a man of very consider- able gifts and sweetness of character. In 1661 he was imprisoned for refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and on several subse- quent occasions he passed long periods in Reading and Aylesbury gaols. He died on the 8th of October 1679; his wife, who wrote an account of his imprisonments, survived till 1682. In 1681 Penington's writings were published in a collected edition, and several later editions were issued before the end of the i8th century. His son John Penington (1655-1710) defended his father's memory against attack, and published some con- troversial tracts against George Keith. Edward Penington (1667-1711), another of Isaac Penington's sons, emigrated to Pennsylvania, where ha founded a family. Isaac Penington's stepdaughter, Gulielma Springett, married William Penn. See Maria Webb, The Penns and Peningtons of the l?th Century (London, 1867); Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England (7 vols., Oxford, 1839); Bulstrode Whitelocke, Memorials of English Affairs: Charles I. to the Restoration (London, I732); J- Gurney Beyan, Life of Isaac Penington (London, 1784); Thomas Ellwood, History of the Life of Ellwood by his own hand (London, 1765); Willem Sewel, History of the Quakers (6th ed., 2 vols., London, 1834). PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsida, from paene, almost, and insula, an island), in physical geography, a piece of land nearly sur- rounded by water. In its original sense it connotes attachment to a larger land-mass by a neck of land (isthmus) narrower than the peninsula itself, but it is often extended to apply to any long promontory, the coast-line of which is markedly longer than the landward boundary. PENINSULAR WAR (1808-14). This important war, the conduct and result of which greatly enhanced the prestige of British arms, had for its main object the freedom of the Peninsula of Spain and Portugal from the domination of Napoleon; and hence it derives its name, though it terminated upon the soil of France. Nelson having destroyed the French fleet at Trafalgar, Napoleon feared the possibility of a British army being landed on the Peninsular coasts, whence in conjunction with Portuguese and Spanish forces it might attack France from the south. He therefore called upon Portugal, in August 1807, to comply with his Berlin decree of the 2ist of November 1806, under which continental nations were to close their ports to British subjects, and have no communication with Great Britain. At the same time he persuaded the weak king of Spain (Charles IV.) and his corrupt minister Godoy to permit a French army to pass through Spain towards Portugal; while under a secret treaty signed at Fontainebleau on the 2 7th of October 1807 Spanish troops were to support the French. Portugal was to be sub- sequently divided between Spain and France, and a new princi- pality of the Algarve was to be carved out for Godoy. Portugal remonstrated against Napoleon's demands, and a French corps (30,000) under General Junot was instantly despatched to Lisbon. Upon its approach the prince regent fled, and the country was occupied by Junot, most of the Portuguese troops being disbanded or sent abroad. Napoleon induced the king of Spain to allow French troops to occupy the country and to send the flower of the Spanish forces (15,000) under the marquis of Romana1 to assist the French on the Baltic. Then Dupont de 1'Etang (25,000) was ordered to cross the Bidassoa on the 22nd of November 1807; and by the 8th of January 1808 he had reached Burgos and Valladolid. Marshal Moncey with a corps occupied Biscay and Navarre; Duhesme with a division entered Catalonia; and a little later Bessieres with another corps had been brought up. There were now about 100,000 French soldiers in Spain, and Murat, grand duke of Berg, as " lieutenant for the emperor," entered Madrid. During February and March 1808 the frontier fortresses of Pampeluna, St Sebastian, Barcelona and Figueras were treacherously occupied and Spain lay at the feet of Napoleon. The Spanish people, in an outburst of fury against the king and Godoy, forced the former to abdicate in favour of his son Ferdinand; but the inhabitants of Madrid having (May 2, 1808) risen against the French, Napoleon refused to recognize Ferdinand; both he and the king were compelled to renounce their rights to the throne, and a mercenary council of regency having been induced to desire the French emperor to make his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, king, he acceded to their request.2 The mask was now completely thrown off, and Spain and Portugal rose against the French. Provincial " juntas " (com- mittees of government) were organized; appeals for assistance made to the British government, which granted arms, money and supplies, and it was resolved to despatch a British force to the Peninsula. Before it landed, the French under Dupont, Moncey and Marshal Bessieres (75,000) had occupied parts of Biscay, Navarre, Aragon and the Castiles, holding Madrid and Toledo, while General Duhesme (14,000) was in Catalonia. Moncey (7000) had marched towards the city of Valencia, but been repulsed in attempting to storm it (June 28); Bessieres had defeated the Spanish general Joachim Blake at Medina de Rio Seco (June 14, 1808) and Dupont (13,000) had been detached (May 24) from Madrid to reduce Seville and Cadiz in Andalusia. Spanish levies, numbering nearly 100,000 regulars and militia, brave and enthusiastic, but without organization, sufficient training, or a commander-in-chief, had collected together; 30,000 being in Andalusia, a similar number in Gab'cia, and others in Valencia and Estremadura, but few in the central portion of Spain. At this juncture Dupont, moving upon Cadiz, met with areverse which greatly influenced the course of the Peninsular War. On the 7th of June 1808 he had sacked Cordova; but while he was laden with its spoils the Spanish general Castanos with the army of Andalusia (30,000), and also a large body of armed peasantry, approached. Falling back to Andujar, where he was reinforced to 22,000 strong, Dupont detached a force to hold the mountain passes in his rear, whereupon the Spaniards interposed between the detachment and the main body and seized Baylen. Failing to dislodge them, and surrounded by hostile troops and an infuriated peasantry, Dupont capitulated with over Battle of 20,000 men. This victory, together with the in- Bayieo, July trepid defence of Saragossa by the Spanish general ' ' ' ° ' Jose Palafox (June 15 to August 13, 1808) temporarily paralysed the French and created unbounded enthusiasm in Spain. Duhesme, having failed to take Gerona, was blockaded in Barcelona, Joseph fled from Madrid (Aug. i, 1808), and the French forces closed to their rear to defend their communications with France. The British troops were directed towards Lisbon and Cadiz, in order to secure these harbours, to prevent the subjugation of Andalusia, and to operate up the basins of the Guadiana, Tagus and Douro into Spain. The British force consisted of 9000 men from Cork, under Sir Arthur Wellesley — at first in chief command; 5000 from Gibraltar, under General (Sir Brent) Spencer; and 10,000 under Sir John Moore coming from Sweden; Wellesley and Moore being directed towards Portugal, and Spencer to Cadiz. On the ist of August 1808 1 They subsequently escaped from Jutland, on British vessels, and reached Santander in October 1808. 2 The king, the queen and Godoy were eventually removed to Rome, and Ferdinand to Valencay in France. PENINSULAR WAR 91 Wellesley began to land his troops, unopposed, near Figueira da Foz at the mouth of the Mondego; and the Spanish victory of Baylen having relieved Cadiz from danger, Spencer now joined him, and, without waiting for Moore the army, under 15,000 in all (which included some Portuguese)1 with 18 guns, advanced towards Lisbon. Campaign in Portugal, 1808. — The first skirmish took place at Obidos on the isth of August 1808, against Delaborde's division (5000 men with 5 guns), which fell back to Roleia (Rorifa or Rolica). A battle took place here (Aug. 17) in which Sir Arthur Wellesley attacked and drove him from two successive positions. The allied loss was about 500: the French 600 and three guns.1 On the 2Oth of August the Allies, strengthened by the arrival of two more brigades (4000 men), occupied some heights north of Vimiera (Vimeira or Vimeiro) where the roads branch off to Torres Vedras and Mafra. Wellesley meant to turn the defile of Torres Vedras by Mafra at once if possible; but on this night Sir Harry Burrard, his senior, arrived off Vimiera, and though he did not land, gave instructions to wait for Sir John Moore. On the 2ist of August the Allies were attacked by Junot at Vimiera, who, leaving a force at Lisbon, had come up to reinforce Delaborde. In this battle the Allies Battle of numbered about 18,000 with 18 guns, French nearly Vimiera, 14,000, with 20 guns. Junot, believing the allied August 21, ieft to be weakly held, attacked it without recon- t808' noitring, but Wellesley's regiments, marched thither behind the heights, sprang up in line; and under their volleys and bayonet charge, supported by artillery fire, Junot's deep columns were driven off the direct road to Lisbon. The losses were: Allies about 800, French 2000 and 13 guns. It was now again Wellesley's wish to advance and seize Torres Vedras; but Sir Hew Dalrymple, having at this moment assumed command, decided otherwise. On the 2nd of August Junot, knowing of the approach of Moore with reinforcements, and afraid of a revolt in Lisbon, opened negotiations, which resulted in the Convention of Cintra2 (Aug. 30, 1808), under which the French evacuated Portugal, on condition that they were sent with their artillery and arms to France. Thus this campaign had been rapidly brought to a satisfactory conclusion; and Sir Arthur Wellesley had already given proof of his exceptional gifts as a leader. In England however a cry was raised that Junot should have been forced to an absolutely unconditional surrender; and Sir Arthur Wellesley, Sir Hew Dalrymple and Sir Harry Burrard3 were brought before a court of inquiry in London. This acquitted them of blame, and Sir John Moore in the mean- time after the departure of Dalrymple (Oct. 6, 1808) had assumed command of the allied army in Portugal, now about 32,000 strong. Moore's Campaign in Spain, 1808-9. — The British govern- ment notified to Sir John Moore that some 10,000 men were to be sent to Corunna under Sir David Baird; that he, with 20,000, was to join him, and then both act in concert with the Spanish armies. As the conduct of this campaign was largely influenced by the operations of the Spanish forces, it is necessary to mention their positions, and also the fact that greater reliance had been placed, both in England and Spain, upon them than future events justified. On the 26th of October 1808, when Moore's troops had left Lisbon to join Baird, the French still held a defensive position behind the Ebro; Bessieres being in the basin of Vitoria, Marshal Key north-west of Logrono, and Moncey covering Pampeluna, and near Sanguessa. With the garrisons of Biscay, Navarre, and a reserve at Bayonne, their strength was about 75,000 men. Palafox (20,000) was near Saragossa and •observing Sanguessa; Castanos with the victors of Baylen 1 In this account of the war the losses and numbers' engaged in different battles are given approximately only; and the former include killed, wounded and missing. Historians differ much on these matters. 1 It was not, however, signed at Cintra, but at Lisbon, and was mainly negotiated near Torres Vedras. 8 The two latter were recalled from the Peninsula ; Sir Arthur Wellesley had proceeded to London upon leave, and had only signed the armistice with Junot, not the convention itself. (34,000) west and south of Tudela and near Logrono; Blake (32,000) east of Reynosa, having captured Bilbao; Count de Belvedere (11,000) near Burgos; reserves (57,000) were assem- bling about Segovia, Talavera and Cordova; Catalonia was held by 23,000, and Madrid had been reoccupied. Moore had to decide whether to join Baird by sea or land. To do so by sea at this season was to risk delay, while in moving by land he would have the Spanish armies between him and the French. For these reasons he marched by land; and as the roads north of the Tagus were deemed impassable for guns, while transport and supplies for a large force were also difficult to procure, he sent Sir John Hope, with the artillery, cavalry and reserve ammunition column, south of the river, through Badajoz to Almaraz, to move thence through Talavera, Madrid and the Escurial Pass, involving a considerable d6tour; while he himself with the infantry, marching by successive divisions, took the shorter roads north of the Tagus through Coimbra and Almeida, and also by Alcantara and Coria to Ciudad Rodrigo and Sala- manca. Baird was to move south through Galicia to meet him, and the army was to concentrate at Valladolid, Burgos, or whatever point might seem later on to be best. But as Moore was moving forward, the whole situation in Spain changed. Napoleon's forces, now increased to some 200,000 men present and more following, were assuming the offensive, and he himself on the 30th of October — had left Paris to place himself at their head. Before them the Spaniards were routed in every direction: Castanos was defeated near Logrono (Oct. 27); Castanos and Palafox at Tudela (Nov. 23); Blake at Zornoza (Oct. 29), Espinosa (Nov. n) and Reynosa (Nov. 13); and Belvedere at Gamonal, near Burgos (Nov. 10). Thus when Moore reached Salamanca (Nov. 28) Baird was at Astorga; Hope at the Escurial Pass; Napoleon himself at Aranda; and French troops at Valladolid, Arevalo and Segovia; so that the French were nearer than either Baird or Hope to Moore at Salamanca. Moore was ignorant of their exact position and strength, but he knew that Valladolid had been occupied, and so his first orders were that Baird should fall back to Galicia and Hope to Portugal. But these were soon changed, and he now took the important resolution of striking a blow for Spain, and for the defenders of Madrid, by attacking Napoleon's communications with France. Hope having joined him through Avila, and magazines having been formed at Benavente, Astorga and Lugo, in case of retreat in that direction, he moved forward, and on the I3th of December approached the Douro, at and near Rueda east of Toro. Here he learnt that Madrid had fallen to Napoleon (Dec. 3) after he had by a brilliant charge of the Polish lancers and chasseurs of the Guard forced the Somosierra Pass (Nov. 30) and in another action stormed the Retire commanding Madrid itself (Dec. 3) ; that the French were pressing on towards Lisbon and Andalusia; that Napoleon was unaware of his vicinity, and that Soult's corps, isolated on the Carrion River, had been ordered towards Benavente. He then finally decided to attack Soult (intending subsequently to fall back through Galicia) and ordered up transports from Lisbon to Corunna and Vigo; thus changing his base from Portugal to the north-west of Spain; Blake's Spanish army, now rallying under the marquis de la Romafia near Leon, was to co-operate, but was able to give little effective aid. On the 2oth of December Baird joined Moore near Mayorga, and a brilliant cavalry combat now took place at Sahagun, in which the British hussar brigade distinguished itself. But on the 23rd of December, when Moore was at Sahagun and about to attack Soult, he learnt that overwhelming French forces were hastening towards him, so withdrew across the Esla, near Benevente (Dec. 28), destroying the bridge there. Napoleon, directly he realized Moore's proximity, had ordered Soult to Astorga to cut him off from Galicia; recalled his other troops from their march towards Lisbon and Andalusia, and, with 50,000 men and 150 guns, had left Madrid himself (Dec. 22). He traversed over 100 m. in less than five days across the snow- covered Escurial Pass, reaching Tordesillas on the Douro on the 26th of December. Hence he wrote to Soult, " If the English PENINSULAR WAR pass to-day in their position (which he believed to be Sahagun) they are lost." But Moore had passed Astorga by the 3ist of December, where Napoleon arrived on the ist of January 1809. Thence he turned back, with a large portion of his army towards France, leaving Soult with over 40,000 men to follow Moore. On the " Retreat to Corunna " fatigue, wet and bitter cold, combined with the sense of an enforced retreat, shook the discipline of Moore's army; but he reached Corunna on the nth of January 1809, where he took up a position across the road from Lugo, with his left on the river Mero. On the I4th of January the transports arrived; and on the i6th Soult attacked. Battle of In this battle the French numbered about 20,000 with Corunna, 40 guns; the British 15,000 with 9 very light guns. January 16, goult failed to dislodge the British, and Moore was 1809' about to deliver a counter-attack when he himself fell mortally wounded. Baird was also wounded, and as night was approaching, Hope suspended the advance, and subse- quently embarked the army, with scarcely any further loss. The British casualties were about 1000, the French 2000. When the troops landed in England, half clothed and half shod, their leader's conduct of the campaign was at first blamed, but his reputation as a general rests solidly upon these facts, that when Napoleon in person, having nearly 300,000 men in Spain, had stretched forth his hand to seize Portugal and Andalusia, Moore with 30,000, forced him to withdraw it, and follow him to Corunna, escaping at the same time from his grasp. Certainly a notable achievement. Campaign in Portugal and Spain, I Sop. — On the 2 2nd of April 1809 Sir Arthur Wellesley reached Lisbon. By this time, French armies, to a great extent controlled by Napoleon from a distance, had advanced — Soult from Galicia to capture Oporto and Lisbon (with General Lapisse from Salamanca moving on his left towards Abrantes) and Marshal Victor, still farther to the left, with a siege train to take Badajoz, Merida and subse- quently Cadiz. Soult (over 20,000), leaving Ney in Galicia, had taken and sacked Oporto (March 29, 1809); but the Portuguese having closed upon his rear and occupied Vigo, he halted, detaching a force to Amarante to keep open the road to Braganza and asked for reinforcements. Victor had crossed the Tagus, and defeated Cuesta at Medellin (March 28, 1809); but, surrounded by insurgents, he also had halted; Lapisse had joined him, and together they were near Merida, 30,000 strong. On the allied side the British (25,000), including some German auxiliaries, were about Leiria: the Portuguese regular troops (16,000) near Thomar; and some thousands of Portuguese militia were observ- ing Soult in the north of Portugal, a body under Silveira being at Amarante, which Soult was now approaching. Much progress had been made in the organization and training of the Portuguese levies; Major-General William Carr Beresford, with the rank of marshal, was placed at their head. Of the Spaniards, Palafox, after his defeat at Tudela had most gallantly defended Saragossa a second time (Dec. 20, i8o8-Feb. 20, 1809); the Catalonians, after reverses at Molins de Rey (Dec. 21, 1808) and at Vails (Feb. 25, 1809) had taken refuge in Tarragona; and Rosas had fallen (Dec. 5, 1808) to the French general Gouvion St Cyr who, having relieved Barcelona, was besieging Gerona. Romana's force was now near Orense in Galicia. A supreme junta had been formed which could nominally assemble about 100,000 men, but jealousy among its members was rife, and they still declined to appoint any commander-in-chief. On the sth of May 1809, Wellesley moved towards the river Douro, having detached Beresford to seize Amarante, from which the French had now driven Silveira. Soult Passage of expected the passage of the Douro to be attempted the Douro, near its mouth, with fishing craft; but Wellesley, by May 12,1809. a Baring surprise, crossed (May 12) close above Oporto, and also by a ford higher up. After some fighting Oporto was taken, and Soult driven back. The Portuguese being in his rear, and Wellesley closing with him, the only good road of retreat available lay through Amarante, but he now learned that Beresford had taken this important point from Silveira; so he was then compelled, abandoning his guns and much baggage, to escape, with a loss of some 5000 men, over the mountains of the Sierra Catalina to Salamonde, and thence to Orense. During the above operations, Victor, with Lapisse, had forced the passage of the Tagus at Alcantara but, on Wellesley return- ing to Abrantes, he retired. News having been received that Napoleon had suffered a serious check at the battle of Aspern, near Vienna (May 22, 1809), Wellesley next determined — leaving Beresford (20,000) near Ciudad Rodrigo — to move with 22,000 men, in conjunction with Cuesta's Spanish army (40,000) towards Madrid against Victor, who, with 25,000 supported by King Joseph (50,000) covering the capital, was near Talavera. Sir Robert Wilson with 4000 Portuguese from Salamanca, and a Spanish force under Venegas (25,000) from Carolina, were to co-operate and occupy Joseph, by closing upon Madrid. Cuesta, during the advance up the valley of the Tagus, was to occupy the pass of Banos on the left flank; the Spanish authorities were to supply provisions, and Venegas was to be at Arganda, near Madrid, by the 22nd or 23rd of July; but none of these arrange- ments were duly carried out, and it was on this that the remain- der of the campaign turned. Writing to Soult from Austria, Napoleon had placed the corps of Ney and Mortier under his orders, and said: " Wellesley will most likely advance by the Tagus against Madrid; in that case, pass the mountains, fall on his flank and rear, and crush him." By the 2oth of July Cuesta had joined Wellesley at Oropesa; and both then moved forward to Talavera, Victor falling back before them: but Cuesta, irritable and jealous, would not work cordially with Welksley; Venegas — Talavera, counter-ordered it is said by the Spanish junta — did July 27, 28, not go to Arganda, and Wilson, though he advanced l809' close to Madrid, was forced to retire, so that Joseph joined Victor, and the united force attacked the Allies at Talavera de la Reina on the Tagus. The battle lasted for two days, and ended in the defeat of the French, who fell back towards Madrid.1 Owing to want of supplies, the British had fought in a half -starved condition; and Wellesley now learnt to his sur- prise that Soult had passed the mountains and was in his rear. Having turned about, he was on the march to attack him, when he heard (Aug. 23) that not Soult's corps alone, but three French corps, had come through the pass of Banos without opposition; that Soult himself was at Naval Moral, between him and the bridge of Almaraz on the Tagus, and that Cuesta was retreating from Talavera. Wellesley's force was now in a dangerous position: but by withdrawing at once across the Tagus at Arzobispo, he reached Jaraicejo and Almaraz (by the south bank) blowing up the bridge at Almaraz, and thence moved, through Merida, northwards to the banks of the Agueda, commencing to fortify the country around Lisbon. Elsewhere in the Peninsula during this year, Blake, now in Catalonia, after routing Suchet at Alcaniz (May 23, 1809), was defeated by him at Maria (June 15) and at Belchite (June 18); Venegas, by King Joseph and Sebastiani, at Almonacid on the nth of August; Del Parque (20,000), after a previous victory near Salamanca (Oct. 18), was overthrown at Alba de Tormes by General Marchand (Nov. 28) ; the old forces of Venegas and Cuesta (50,000), now united under Areizaga, were decisively routed by King Joseph at Ocafia (Nov. 19); and Gerona after a gallant defence, had surrendered to Augereau (Dec. 10). Sir Arthur Wellesley was for this campaign created Baron Douro and Viscount Wellington. He was made captain-general by Spain, and marshal-general by Portugal. But his experience after Talavera had been akin to that of Moore; his expectations from the Spaniards had not been realized; he had been almost intercepted by the French, and he had narrowly escaped from a critical position. Henceforth he resisted all proposals for joint operations, on any large scale, with Spanish armies not under his own direct command. 1 After the battle the Light Division, under Robert Craufurd, joined Wellesley. In the endeavour to reach the field in time it had covered, in heavy marching order, over 50 m. in 25 hours, in hot July weather. PENINSULAR WAR 93 Campaign in Portugal, 1810. — Napoleon, having avenged Aspern by the victory of Wagram (July 6, 1809), despatched to Spain large reinforcements destined to increase his army there to about 370,000 men. Marshal Massena with 120,000, including the corps of Ney, Junot, Reynier and some of the Imperial Guard, was to operate from Salamanca against Portugal; but first Soult, appointed major-general of the army in Spain (equivalent to chief of the staff), was, with the corps of Victor, Mortier and Sebastiani (70,000), to reduce Andalusia. Soult (Jan. 31, 1810) occupied Seville and escaping thence to Cadiz, the Supreme Junta resigned its powers to a regency of five members (Feb. 2, 1810). Cadiz was invested by Victor's corps (Feb. 4) , and then Soult halted, waiting for Massena, who arrived at Valladolid on the isth of May. In England a party in parliament were urging the withdrawal of the British troops, and any reverse to the allied arms would have strengthened its hands. Wellington's policy was thus cautious and defensive, and he had already commenced the since famous lines of Torres Vedras round Lisbon. In June 1810 his headquarters were at Celorico. With about 35,000 British, 30,000 Portuguese regular troops and 30,000 Portuguese militia, he watched the roads leading into Portugal past Ciudad Rodrigo to the north, and Badajoz to the south of the Tagus, as also the line of the Douro and the country between the Elga and the Ponsul. Soult having been instructed to co-operate by taking Badajoz and Elvas, Massena, early in June 1810, moved forward, and Ciudad Rodrigo surrendered to him (June 10). Next pushing back a British force under Craufurd, he invested Almeida, taking it on the 27th of August. Then calling up Reynier, who during this had moved on his left towards Alcantara, he marched down the right bank of the Mondego, and entered Viseu (Sept. 21). Wellington fell back before him down the left bank, ordering up Rowland Hill's force from the Badajoz road, the peasantry having been previously called upon to destroy their crops and retire within the lines of Torres Vedras. A little north of Coimbra, the -road which Massena followed crossed the Sierra de Bussaco (Busaco), a very strong position where Wellington resolved to offer him battle. Massena, superior in numbers and over-confident, made a direct attack upon the heights on the 27th of September 1810: his Battle of strength being about 60,000, while that of the Allies Busaco. was about 50,000, of whom nearly half were Portu- September 27, 1810. guese. After a stern conflict the French were the loss being five generals and nearly 5000 men, while the Allies lost about 1300. The next day Massena turned the Sierra by the Boyalva Pass and Sardao, which latter place, owing to an error, had not been occupied by the Portu- guese, and Wellington then retreated by Coimbra and Leiria to the lines, which he entered on the nth of October, having within them fully 100,000 able-bodied men. The celebrated " Lines of Torres Vedras " were defensive works designed to resist any army which Napoleon could send Lines of against them. They consisted of three great lines, Torres strengthened by about 150 redoubts, and earthworks Vedras, of various descriptions, mounting some 600 cannon; 1810-n. tne outer iinCi nearly 30 m. long, stretching over heights north of Lisbon, from the Tagus to the sea. As Massena advanced, the Portuguese closing upon his rear retook Coimbra (Oct. 7), and when he neared the lines, astounded at their strength, he sent General Foy to the emperor to ask for reinforcements. After an effort, defeated by Hill, to cross the Tagus, he withdrew (Nov. 15) to Santarem. This practically closed Wellington's operations for the year 1810, his policy now being not to lose men in battle, but to reduce Massena by hunger and distress. In other parts of Spain, Augereau had taken Hostalrich (May 10); captured Lerida (May 14); Mequinenza (June 8); and invested Tortosa (Dec. 15). The Spanish levies had been unable to contribute much aid to the Allies; the French having subdued almost all Spain, and being now in possession of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida. On the other hand Wellington still held Lisbon with parts of Portugal, Elvas and Badajoz, for Soult had not felt disposed to attempt the capture of the last two fortresses. Campaign of 1811. — Napoleon, whose attention was now directed towards Russia, refused to reinforce Massena, but enjoined Soult to aid him by moving against Badajoz. Soult, therefore, leaving Victor before Cadiz, invested Badajoz (Jan. 26, 1811) and took it from the Spaniards (March 10). With the hope of raising the blockade of Cadiz, a force under Sir Thomas Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch [q.v.]) left that harbour by sea, and joining with Spanish troops near Tarifa, advanced by land against Victor's blockading force, a Spanish general, La Pena, being in chief command. As they neared Barrosa, Victor attacked them, the Allies numbering in the battle about 13,000 with 24 guns, 4000 being British; the French 9000, actually engaged, with 14 guns; but with 5000 more a few miles off and others in the French lines. Hard fighting, chiefly Battle of between the French and British, now ensued, and Barrosa, at one time the Barrosa ridge, the key of the position Marcbs, left by La Pena's orders, practically undefended, I8tl' fell into the French hands: but Graham by a resolute counter-attack regained it, and Victor was in the end driven back. La Pena, who had in the battle itself failed to give proper support to Graham, would not pursue, and Graham declining to carry on further operations with him, re-entered Cadiz. The French afterwards resumed the blockade, so that although Barrosa was an allied victory, its object was not attained. The British loss was about 1200; the French 2000, 6 guns and an eagle. On the day of the above battle Massena, having destroyed what guns he could not horse, and skilfully gained time by a feint against Abrantes, began his retreat from before . A . • i T^ • i i TT- Masseaa's the lines, through Coimbra and Espmhal. His getreat. army was in serious distress; he was in want of food and supplies; most of his horses were dead, and his men were deserting. Wellington followed, directing the Portuguese to remove all boats from the Mondego and Douro, and to break up roads north of the former river. Beresford was detached to succour Badajoz, but was soon recalled, as it had fallen to Soult. Ney, commanding Massena's rearguard, conducted the retreat with great ability. In the pursuit, Wellington adhered to his policy of husbanding his troops for future offensive operations, and let sickness and hunger do the work of the sword. This they effectually did. Nothing could well exceed the horrors of Massena's retreat. Rearguard actions were fought at Pombal (March 10) , Redinha (March 1 2) and Condeixa (March 13) . Here Ney was directed to make a firm stand; but, ascertaining that the Portuguese were at Coimbra and the bridge there broken, and fearing to be cut off also from Murcella, he burnt Condeixa, and marched to Cazal Nova. An action took place here (March 14) and at Foz d'Arouce (March 15). Wellington now sent off Beresford with a force to retake Badajoz; and Massena, sacri- ficing much of his baggage and ammunition, reached Celorico and Guarda (March 21). Here he was attacked by Wellington (March 29) and, after a further engagement at Sabugal (April 3, 1811), he fell back through Ciudad to Salamanca, having lost in Portugal nearly 30,000 men, chiefly from want and disease, and 6000 in the retreat alone. The key to the remaining operations of i8n lies in the impor- tance attached by both Allies and French to the possession of the fortresses which guarded the two great roads from Portugal into Spain — Almeida and Ciudad Rodrigo on the northern, and Badajoz and Elvas on the southern road; all these except Elvas were in French hands. Wellington, on the gth of April 1811, directed General Spencer to invest Almeida; he then set off himself to join Beresford before Badajoz, but after reconnoitring the fortress with his lieutenant he had at once to return north on the news that Massena was moving to relieve Almeida. On the 3rd of May Loison attacked him at Fuentes d'Onor near Almeida, and Massena coming up himself made a more serious attack on the sth of May. The- Allies numbered Battle of about 33,000, with 42 guns; the French 45,000 with Fueates 30 guns. The battle is chiefly notable for the steadi- fOaor, ness with which the allied right, covered by the Light "** ia Division in squares, changed position in presence of the French 94 PENINSULAR WAR cavalry; and for the extraordinary feat of arms of Captain Norman Ramsay, R.H.A., in charging through the French cavalry with his guns. Massena failed to dislodge the Allies, and on the 8th of May withdrew to Salamanca, Almeida falling to Wellington on the nth of May 1811. The allied loss in the fighting on both days at Fuentes d'Onor was about 1500: the French 3000. In the meantime Soult (with 23,000 men and 50 guns), ad- vancing to relieve Badajoz, compelled Beresford to suspend Battle of tne S'e6e> anc* to ta^e UP a Posit*011 with aDout 30,000 Aibuera, men (of whom 7000 were British) and 38 guns May 16, behind the river Albuhera (or Aibuera). Here K"' Soult attacked him on the i6th of May. An unusu- ally bloody battle ensued, in which the French efforts were chiefly directed against the allied right, held by the Spaniards. At one time the right appeared to be broken, and 6 guns were lost, when a gallant advance of Sir Lowry Cole's division restored the day, Soult then falling back towards Seville. The allied loss was about 7000 (including about half the British force) ; the French about 8000. After this Wellington from Almeida rejoined Beresford and the siege of Badajoz was continued: but now Marshal Marmont, having succeeded Massena, was marching southwards to join Soult, and, two allied assaults of Badajoz having failed, Welling- ton withdrew. Subsequently, leaving Hill in the Alemtejo, he returned towards Almeida, and with 40,000 men commenced a blockade of Ciudad Rodrigo, his headquarters being at Fuente Guinaldo. Soult and Marmont now fell back, the former to Seville, the latter to the valley of the Tagus, south of the pass of Bafios. In September, Marmont joined with the army of the north under General Dorsenne, coming from Salamanca — their total force being 60,000, with 100 guns — and succeeded (Sept. 25) in introducing a convoy of provisions into Ciudad Rodrigo. Before so superior a force, Wellington had not attempted to maintain the blockade; but on Marmont afterwards advancing towards him, he fought a rearguard action with him at El Bodon (Sept. 25), notable, as was Fuentes d'Onor, for the coolness with which the allied squares retired amidst the enemy's horsemen; and again at Fuente Guinaldo (Sept. 25 and 26) he maintained for 30 hours, with 15,000 men, a bold front against Marmont's army of 60,000, in order to save the Light Division from being cut off. At Aldea de Ponte there was a further sharp engage- ment (Sept. 27), but Wellington taking up a strong position near Sabugal, Marmont and Dorsenne withdrew once more to the valley of the Tagus and Salamanca respectively, and Wellington again blockaded Ciudad Rodrigo. Thus terminated the main operations of this year. On the 28th of October 1811, Hill, by a very skilful surprise, captured Arroyo de los Molinos (between Badajoz and Trujillo), almost annihilating a French corps under Gerard; and in December 1811 the French were repulsed in their efforts to capture Tarifa near Cadiz. In the east of Spain Suchet took Tortosa (Jan. i, 1811); Tarragona (June 28); and Murviedro (Oct. 26), defeating Blake's relieving force, which then took refuge in Valencia. Macdonald also retook Figueras which the Spaniards had taken on the 9th of April 1811 (Aug. 19). Portugal had now been freed from the French, but they still held Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the two main gates into Spain. Campaign in Spain, 1812, — The campaign of 1812 marks an important stage in the war. Napoleon, with the Russian War in prospect, had early in the year withdrawn 30,000 men from Spain; and Wellington had begun to carry on what he termed a war of " magazines." Based on rivers (the navigation of which greatly improved) and the sea, he formed dep6ts or magazines of provisions at many points, which enabled him always to take and keep the field. The French, on the other hand, had great difficulty in establishing any such reserves of food, owing to their practice of depending for sustenance entirely upon the country in which they were quartered. Wellington assumed the offensive, and by various movements and feints, aided the guerrilla bands by forcing the French corps to assemble in their districts, which not only greatly harassed them but also materi- ally hindered the combination of their corps for concerted action. Having secretly got a battering train into Almeida and directed Hill, as a blind, to engage Soult by threatening Badajoz, he suddenly (Jan. 8, 1812) besieged Ciudad Rodrigo. The French, still numbering nearly 200,000, now held the following positions: the Army of the North — Dorsenne (48,000) — was about the Pisuerga, in the Asturias, and along the northern coast; the Army of Portugal — Marmont (50,000) — mainly in the valley of the Tagus, but ordered to Salamanca; the Army of the South — Soult (55,000) — in Andalusia; the Army of the Centre — Joseph (19,000) — about Madrid. The siege of Ciudad Rodrigo was calculated in the ordinary course to require twenty-four days: but on it becoming known that Marmont was moving northward, the assault was giegeof delivered after twelve days only (Jan. 19). The Ciudad gallantry of the troops made it successful, though with Rodrigo, the loss of Generals Craufurd and McKinnon, and 1300 *™J^ *" men, and Marmont's battering train of 150 guns here fell into the allied hands. Then, after a feint of passing on into Spain, Wellington rapidly marched south and, with 22,000 men, laid siege to Badajoz (March 17, 1812), Hill with 30,000 covering the siege near Merida. Wellington was hampered by want of time, arid had to assault prematurely. Soult and Marmont having begun to move to relieve the garrison, the assault was delivered on the night of the 7th of April, and siege of though the assailants failed at the breaches, the Badajoz, carnage at which was terrible, a very daring escalade Malvl> t7 to of one of the bastions and of the castle succeeded, ' and Badajoz fell, Souk's pontoon train being taken in it. After the assault, some deplorable excesses were committed by the victorious troops. The allied loss was 3600 in the assault alone and 5000 in the entire siege. The Allies had now got possession of the two great gates into Spain: and Hill, by an enterprise most skilfully carried out, destroyed (May 19) the Tagus bridge at Almaraz, by which Soult to the south of the river chiefly communicated with Mar- mont to the north. Wellington then, ostentatiously making preparations to enter Spain by the Badajoz line, once more turned northward, crossed the Tormes (June 17, 1812), and advanced to the Douro, behind which the French were drawn up. Marmont had erected at Salamanca some strong forts, the reduction of which occupied Wellington ten days, and cost him 600 men. The Allies and French now faced each other along the Douro to the Pisuerga. The river was high, and Wellington hoped that want of supplies would compel Marmont to retire, but in this he was disappointed. On the isth of July 1812, Marmont, after a feint against Wellington's left, suddenly, by a forced march, turned his right, and made rapidly towards the fords of Huerta and Alba on the Tormes. Some interesting manoeuvres now took place, Wellington moving parallel and close to Marmont, but more to the north, making for the fords of Aldea Lengua and Santa Marta on the Tormes nearer to Salamanca, and being under the belief that the Spaniards held the castle and ford at Alba on that river. But Marmont's manoeuvring and marching power had been underestimated, and on the 2ist of July while Wellington's position covered Salamanca, and but indirectly his line of communications through Ciudad Rodrigo, Marmont had reached a point from which he hoped to interpose between Wellington and Portugal, on the Ciudad Rodrigo road. This he endeavoured to do on the 22nd of July 1812, which brought on the important battle of Salamanca (q.v.) in which Battle of Wellington gained a decisive victory, the French Salamanca, falling back to Valladolid and thence to Burgos. Ju'y 22> Wellington entered Valladolid (July 30), and thence marched against Joseph, who (July 21) had reached Blasco Sancho with reinforcements for Marmont. Joseph retired before him, and Wellington entered Madrid (Aug. 12, 1812), where, in the Retire, 1700 men, 180 cannon, two eagles, and a quantity of stores were captured. Soult now raised the siege of Cadiz (Aug. 26), and evacuating Andalusia joined Suchet PENINSULAR WAR 95 with some 55,000 men. Wellington then brought up Hill to Madrid. On the ist of September 1812, the French armies having begun once more to collect together, Wellington marched against the Slege of the Army of the North, now under General Clause], and Castle of laid siege to the castle of Burgos (Sept. 19) to secure Burgos, the road towards Santander on the coast. But the Ocf'i/9 *° strenStn °f the castle had been underrated ; Wellington had insufficient siege equipment and transport for heavy guns; five assaults failed, and Soult (having left Suchet in Valencia) and also the Army of Portugal were both approaching, so Wellington withdrew on the night of the Retreat 2ist of October, and, directing the evacuation of irom Madrid, commenced the " Retreat from Burgos." Burgos. jn (.jjjg retreat, although military operations were skilfully conducted, the Allies lost 7000 men, and discipline, as in that to Corunna, became much relaxed. By November 1812, Hill having joined him at Salamanca, Wellington once more had gone into cantonments near Ciudad Rodrigo, and the French armies had again scattered for con- venience of supply. In spite of the failure before Burgos, the successes of the campaign had been brilliant. In addition to the decisive victory of Salamanca, Madrid had been occupied, the siege of Cadiz raised, Andalusia freed, and Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz stormed. Early in January also the French had abandoned the siege of Tarifa, though Valencia had surrendered to them (Jan. 9). One important result of the campaign was that the Spanish Cortes nominated Wellington (Sept. 22, 1812) to the unfettered command of the Spanish armies. For the operations of this campaign Wellington was created earl, and subsequently marquess of Wellington; duke of Ciudad Rodrigo by Spain, and marquis of Torres Vedras by Portugal. Campaign in Spain and the South of France, 1813. — At the opening of 1813, Suchet, with 63,000 men, had been left to hold Valencia, Aragon and Catalonia; and the remainder of the French (about 137,000) occupied Leon, the central provinces and Biscay, guarding also the communications with France. Of these about 60,000 under Joseph were more immediately opposed to Wellington, and posted, in scattered detachments, from Toledo and Madrid behind the Tormes to the Douro, and along that river to the Esla. Wellington had further organized the Spanish forces — Castanos (40,000), with the guerrilla bands of Mina, Longa and others, was in Galicia, the Asturias and northern Spain; Copons (10,000) in Catalonia; Elio (20,000) in Murcia; Del Parque (12,000) in the Sierra Morena, and O'Donell (15,000) in Andalusia. More Portuguese troops had been raised, and reinforcements received from England, so that the Allies, without the Spaniards above alluded to, now numbered some 75,000 men, and from near the Coa watched the Douro and Tormes, their line stretching from their left near Lamego to the pass of Banos, Hill being on the right. The district of the Tras- os-Montes, north of the Douro, about the Tamega, Tua and Sabor, was so rugged that Wellington was convinced that Joseph would expect him to advance by the south of the river. He therefore, moving by the south bank himself with Hill, to confirm Joseph in this expectation, crossed the Tormes near and above Salamanca, having previously — which was to be the decisive movement — detached Graham, with 40,000 men, to make his way, through the difficult district above mentioned, towards Braganza, and then, joining with the Spaniards, to turn Joseph's right. Graham, crossing the Douro near Lamego, carried out his laborious march with great energy, and Joseph retired precipitately from the Douro, behind the Pisuerga. The allied army, raised by the junction of the Spanish troops in Galicia to 90,000, now concentrated near Toro, and moved to- wards the Pisuerga, when Joseph, blowing up the castle of Burgos, fell back behind the Ebro. Once more Wellington turned his right, by a sweeping movement through Rocamunde and Puente Arenas near the source of the Ebro, when he retreated behind the Zadorra near the town of Vitoria. Santander was now evacuated by the French, and the allied line of communications was changed to that port. On the 2oth of June Wellington encamped along the river Bayas, and the next day attacked Joseph. For a description of the decisive battle of Vitoria (June 21, 1813), see VITORIA. In it Battle of King Joseph met with a crushing defeat, and, after vitoria, it, the wreck of his army, cut off from the Vitoria- June 21, Bayonne road, escaped towards Pampeluna. Within l813- a few days Madrid was evacuated, and all the French forces, with the exception of the garrisons of San Sebastian (3000), Pampeluna (3000), Santona (1500), and the troops under Suchet holding posts in Catalonia and Valencia, had retired across the Pyrenees into France. The Spanish peninsula was, to all intents and purposes, free from foreign domination, although the war was yet far from concluded. The French struggled gallantly to the close: but now a long succession of their leaders — Junot, Soult, Victor, Massena, Marmont, Joseph — had been in turn forced to recoil before Wellington; and while their troops fought henceforward under the depressing memory of many defeats, the Allies did so under the inspiriting influence of great successes, and with that absolute confidence in their chief which doubled their fighting power. For this decisive campaign, Wellington was made a field marshal in the British army, and created duke of Victory * by the Portuguese government in Brazil. He now, with about 80,000 men, took up a position with his left (the Spaniards) on the Bidassoa near San Sebastian. Thence his line stretched along the Pyrenees by the passes of Vera, Echallar, Maya and Roncesvalles, to Altobiscar; his immediate object now being to reduce the fortresses of San Sebastian and Pampeluna. Not having sufficient materiel for two sieges, he laid siege to San Sebastian only, and blockaded Pampeluna. Sir Thomas Graham commenced the active siege of San Sebastian on the loth of July 1813, but as Soult was approaching to its relief, the assault was ordered for daylight on the 24th. Unfortunately siegeotsan a conflagration breaking out near the breaches Sebastian, caused it to be postponed until nightfall, when, the Ju'y 10-24, breaches in the interval having been strengthened, I8t3' it was delivered unsuccessfully and with heavy loss. Wellington then suspended the siege in order to meet Soult, who endeavoured (July 25) to turn the allied right, and reach Pampeluna. Attacking the passes of Maya and Roncesvalles, he obliged their defenders to retire, after sharp fighting, to a position Battjet „/ close to Sorauren, which, with 25,000 men, he the Pyn- attempted to carry (July 28). By this time Welling- nees,juiy2S ton had reached it from the allied left ; reinforcements JgiV*****' were pressing up on both sides, and about 1 2,000 allied troops faced the French. A struggle, described by Wellington as " bludgeon work," now ensued, but all efforts to dislodge the Allies having failed, Soult, withdrawing, manoeuvred to his right towards San Sebastian. Wellington now assumed the offensive, and, in a series of engagements, drove the French back (Aug. 2) beyond the Pyrenees. These included Roncesvalles and Maya (July 25); Sorauren (July 28 and 30); Yanzi (Aug. i); and Echallar and Ivantelly (Aug. 2), the total losses in them being about — Allies under 7000, French 10,000. After this, Wellington renewing the siege of San Sebastian carried the place, excepting the castle, after a heavy expenditure of life (Aug. 31). Upon the day of its fall Soult attempted to relieve it, but stormofSaa in the combats of Vera and St Marcial was repulsed. Sebastian, The castle surrendered on the gth of September, Augustsi, the losses in the entire siege having been about — lsl3' Allies 4000, French 2000. Wellington next determined to throw his left across the river Bidassoa to strengthen his own position, and secure the port of Fuenterrabia. Now commenced a series of celebrated river passages, which had to be effected prior to the further invasion of France. At daylight on the 7th of October 1813 he crossed the Bidassoa in seven columns, and attacked the entire French position, which stretched in two heavily entrenched lines from north 1 Duque da Victoria, often incorrectly duke of Vitoria. The coincidence of the title with the place-name of the battle which had not yet been fought when the title was conferred, is curious, but accidental. 96 PENINSULAR WAR of the Irun-Bayonne road, along mountain spurs to the Great Rhune, 2800 ft. high. The decisive movement was a passage in Passage strength near Fuenterrabia, to the astonishment of otttie the enemy, who in view of the width of the river Bidassoa, and the shifting sands, had thought the crossing October 7, impossible at that point. The French right was Wl3' then rolled back, and Soult was unable to reinforce his right in time to retrieve the day. His works fell in succession after hard fighting, and he withdrew towards the river Nivelle. The loss was about— Allies, 1600; French, 1400. The passage of the Bidassoa " was a general's not a soldiers' battle " (Napier). On the 3ist of October Pampeluna surrendered, and Welling- ton was now anxious to drive Suchet from Catalonia before further invading France. The British government, however, in the interests of the continental powers, urged an immediate advance, so on the night of the pth of November 1813 he brought up his right from the Pyrenean passes to the northward of Maya and towards the Nivelle. Soult's army (about 79,000), in three entrenched lines, stretched from the sea in front of St Jean de Luz along commanding ground to Amotz and thence, behind the river, to Mont Mondarin near the Nive. Each army had with it about 100 guns; and, during a heavy cannonade, Wellington on the loth of November 1813 attacked this extended Passage of position of 16 m. in five columns, these being so the Nivelle, directed that after carrying Soult's advanced works Nov. to, a mass of about 50,000 men converged towards the 1813. French centre near Amotz, where, after hard fighting, it swept away the 18,000 of the second line there opposed to it, cutting Soult's army in two. The French right then fell back to St Jean de Luz, the left towards points on the Nive. It was now late and the Allies, after moving a few miles down both banks of the Nivelle, bivouacked, while Soult, taking advantage of the respite, withdrew in the night to Bayonne. The allied loss was about 2700; that of the French 4000, 51 guns, and all their magazines. The next day Wellington closed in upon Bayonne from the sea to the left bank of the Nive. After this there was a period of comparative inaction, though during it the French were driven from the bridges at Urdains and Cambo. The weather had become bad, and the Nive unfordable; but there were additional and serious causes of delay. The Portuguese and Spanish authorities were neglecting the payment and supply of their troops. Wellington had also difficulties of a similar kind with his own government, and also the Spanish soldiers, in revenge for many French outrages, had become guilty of grave excesses in France, so that Wellington took the extreme step of sending 25,000 of them back to Spain and resigning the command of their army, though his resignation was subsequently withdrawn. So great was the tension at this crisis that a rupture with Spain seemed possible. These matters, however, having been at length adjusted, Wellington, who in his cramped position between the sea and the Nive could not use his cavalry or artillery effectively, or interfere with the French supplies coming through St Jean Pied de Port, deter- mined to occupy the right as well as the left bank of the Nive. He could not pass to that bank with his whole force while Soult held Bayonne, without exposing his own communications through Irun. Therefore, on the gth of December 1813, after making a demonstration elsewhere, he effected the passage with Passage of a portion of his force only under Hill and Beresford, the Nive, near Ustaritz and Cambo, his loss being slight, and Dec. 9, thence pushed down the river towards Villefranque, 1813. where Soult barred his way across the road to Bayonne. The allied army was now divided into two portions by the Nive; and Soult from Bayonne at once took advantage of his central position to attack it with all his available force, first on the left bank and then on the right. On the morning of the loth of December he fell, with 60,000 men and 40 guns, upon Hope, who with 30,000 men and 24 guns held a position from the sea, 3 m. south of Biarritz on a ridge behind two lakes (or tanks) through Arcangues towards the Nive. Desperate fighting now ensued, but fortunately, owing to the intersected ground, Soult was compelled to advance slowly, and in the end, Wellington coming up with Beresford from the right bank, the French retired baffled. On the nth and i2th of Battles December there were engagements of a less severe Defore character, and finally on the I3th of December Soult %%£*'/* with 35,000 men made a vehement attack up the the Nive, right bank of the Nive against Hill, who with about Dec. 10-13, 14,000 men occupied some heights from Villefranque tsia. past St Pierre (Lostenia) to Vieux Moguerre. The conflict about St Pierre (Lostenia) was one of the most bloody of the war; but for hours Hill maintained his ground, and finally repulsed the French before Wellington, delayed by his pontoon bridge over the Nive having been swept away, arrived to his aid. The losses in the four days' fighting in the battles before Bayonne (or battles of the Nive) were — Allies about 5000, French about 7000. Both the British and Portuguese artillery, as well as infantry, greatly distinguished themselves in these battles. In eastern Spain Suchet (April n, 1813) had defeated Elio's Murcians at Yecla and Villena, but was subsequently routed by Sir John Murray1 near Castalla (April 13), who then besieged Tarragona. The siege was abandoned after a time, but was later on renewed by Lord W. Bentinck. Suchet, after the battle of Vitoria, evacuated Tarragona (Aug. 17) but defeated Bentinck in the combat of Ordal (Sept. 13). Campaign in the South of France, 1814. — When operations re- commenced in February 1814 the French line extended from Bayonne up the north bank of the Adour to the Pau, thence bending south along the Bidouze to St Palais, with advanced posts on the Joyeuse and at St Jean Pied de Port. Wellington's left, under Hope, watched Bayonne, while Beresford, with Hill, observed the Adour and the Joyeuse, the right trending back till it reached Urcuray on the St Jean Pied de Port road. Exclu- sive of the garrison of Bayonne and other places, the available field force of Soult numbered about 41,000, while that of the Allies, deducting Hope's force observing Bayonne, was of much the same strength. It had now become Wellington's object to draw Soult away from Bayonne, in order that the allied army might, with less loss, cross the Adour and lay siege to the place on both banks of the river. At its mouth the Adour was about 500 yds. wide, and its entrance from the sea by small vessels, except in the finest weather, was a perilous undertaking, owing to the shifting sands and a dangerous bar. On the other hand, the deep sandy soil near its banks made the transport of bridging materiel by land laborious, and almost certain of discovery. Wellington, con- vinced that no effort to bridge below Bayonne would be expected, decided to attempt it there, and collected at St Jean Pied de Port and Passages a large number of country vessels (termed chasse-marees). Then, leaving Hope with 30,000 men to watch Bayonne, he began an enveloping movement round Soult's left. Hill on the I4th and isth of February, after a combat at Garris, drove the French posts beyond the Joyeuse; and Wellington then pressed these troops back over the Bidouze and Gave2 de Mauleon to the Gave d'Oleron. Wellington's object in this was at once attained, for Soult, leaving only 10,000 men in Bayonne, came out and concentrated at Orthes on the Pau. Then Wellington (Feb. 19) proceeded to St Jean de Luz to superintend the despatch of boats to the Adour. Unfavour- able weather, however, compelled him to leave this to Sir John Hope and Admiral Penrose, so returning to the Gave d'Oleron he crossed it, and faced Soult on the Pau (Feb. 25). Hope in the meantime, after feints higher up the Adour, suc- ceeded (Feb. 22 and 23) in passing 600 men across passage of the river in boats. The nature of the ground, the Adour, and there being no suspicion of an attempt at this *%*• & <° point, led to the French coming out very tardily to •**• I814' oppose them; and when they did, some Congreve rockets (then a novelty) threw them into confusion, so that the right bank was held until, on the morning of the 24th, the flotilla of 1 Commander of a British expedition from the Mediterranean islands. '"Gave" in the Pyrenees means a mountain stream or torrent. PENINSULAR WAR 97 chetsse-maries appeared from St Jean de Luz, preceded by men- of-war boats. Several men and vessels were lost in crossing the bar; but by noon on the 26th of February the bridge of 26 vessels had been thrown and secured; batteries and a boom placed to protect it, 8000 troops passed over, and the enemy's gunboats driven up the river. Bayonne was then invested on both banks as a preliminary to the siege. On the 27th of February Wellington, having with little loss effected the passage of the Pau below Orthes, attacked Soult. In this battle the Allies and French were of about equal strength (37,00x3): the former having 48 guns, the latter 40. Soult held Battle of a strong position behind Orthes on heights command- Orthes, ing the roads to Dax and St Sever. Beresford was Feb. 27, directed to turn his right, if possible cutting him off ""' from Dax, and Hill his left towards the St Sever road. Beresford's attack, after hard fighting over difficult ground, was repulsed, when Wellington, perceiving that the pursuing French had left a central part of the heights unoccupied, thrust up the Light Division into it, between Soult's right and centre. At the same time Hill, having found a ford above Orthes, was turning the French left, when Soult retreated just in time to save being cut off, withdrawing towards St Sever, which he reached on the 28th of February. The allied loss was about 2000; the French 4000 and 6 guns. From St Sever Soult turned eastwards to Aire, where he covered the roads to Bordeaux and Toulouse. Beresford, with 12,000 men, was now sent to Bordeaux, which opened its gates as promised to the Allies. Driven by Hill from Aire on the 2nd of March 1814, Soult retired by Vic Bigorre, where there was a combat (March 19), and Tarbes, where there was a severe action (March 20), to Toulouse behind the Garonne. He endeavoured also to rouse the French peasantry against the Allies, but in vain, for Wellington's justice and moderation afforded them no grievances. Wellington wished to pass the Garonne above Toulouse in order to attack the city from the south — its weakest side — and interpose between Soult and Suchet. But finding it impracticable to operate in that direction, he left Hill on the west side and crossed at Grenade below Toulouse (April 3). When Beresford, who had now rejoined Wellington, had passed over, the bridge was swept away, which left him isolated on the right bank. But Soult did not attack; the bridge (April 8) was restored; Wellington crossed the Garonne and the Ers, and attacked Soult on the loth of April. In the battle of Toulouse the French numbered about 40,000 (exclusive of the local National Guards) with 80 guns; the Allies under 52,000 with 64 Battle of guns. Soult's position to the north and east of the Toulouse, city was exceedingly strong, consisting of the canal April 10, 0£ LanguedOC) some fortified suburbs, and (to the extreme east) the commanding ridge of Mont Rave, crowned with redoubts and earthworks. Wellington's columns, under Beresford, were now called upon to make a flank march of some two miles, under artillery, and occasionally musketry, fire, being threatened also by cavalry, and then, while the Spanish troops assaulted the north of the ridge, to wheel up, mount the eastern slope, and carry the works. The Spaniards were repulsed, but Beresford gallantly took Mont Rave and Soult fell back behind the canal. On the 1 2th of April Welling- ton advanced to invest Toulouse from the south, but Soult on the night of the nth had retreated towards Villefranque, and Wellington then entered the city. The allied loss was about 5000; the French 3000. Thus, in the last great battle of the war, the courage and resolution of the soldiers of the Peninsular army were conspicuously illustrated. On the I3th of April 1814 officers arrived with the announce- ment to both armies of the capture of Paris, the abdication of Napoleon, and the practical conclusion of peace; and on the i8th a convention, which included Suchet's force, was entered into between Wellington and Soult. Unfortunately, after Toulouse had fallen, the Allies and French, in a sortie from Bayonne on the i4th of April, each lost about 1000 men: so that some 10,000 men fell after peace had virtually been made. In the east, during this year (1814), Sir W. Clinton had, on xxi. 4 the 1 6th of January, attacked Suchet at Molins de Rey and blockaded Barcelona (Feb. 7); the French posts of Lerida, Mequinenza and Monzon had also been yielded up, and Suchet, on the and of March, had crossed the Pyrenees into France. Figueras surrendered to Cuesta before the end of May; and peace was formally signed at Paris on the 3oth of May. Thus terminated the long and sanguinary struggle of the Peninsular War. The British troops were partly sent to England, and partly embarked at Bordeaux for America, with which country war had broken out (see AMERICAN WAR OF 1812-15): the Portuguese and Spanish recrossed the Pyrenees: the French army was dispersed throughout France: Louis XVIII. was restored to the P'rench throne: and Napoleon was permitted to reside in the island of Elba, the sovereignty of which had been conceded to him by the allied powers. For the operations of this campaign Wellington was created marquess of Douro and duke of Wellington, and peerages were conferred upon Beresford, Graham and Hill. The events of the Peninsular War, especially as narrated in the Wellington Despatches, are replete with instruction not only for the soldier, but 'also for the civil administrator. Even in a brief summary of the war one salient fact is noticeable, that all Wellington's reverses were in connexion with his sieges, for which his means were never adequate. In his many battles he was always victorious, his strategy eminently successful, his organizing and administrative power exceptionally great, his practical resource unlimited, his soldiers most courageous; but he never had an army fully complete in its departments and warlike equipment. He had no adequate corps of sappers and miners, or transport train. In 1812 tools and material of war for his sieges were often insufficient. In 1813, when he was before San Sebastian, the ammunition ran short; a battering train, long demanded, reached him not only some time after it was needed, but even then with only one day's provision of shot and shell. For the siege of Burgos heavy guns were avail- able in store on the coast; but he neither had, nor could procure, the transport to bring them up. By resource and dogged determination Wellington rose superior to almost every diffi- culty, but he could not overcome all; and the main teaching of the Peninsular War turns upon the value of an army that is completely organized in its various branches before hostilities break out. (C. W. R.) AUTHORITIES. — The Wellington Despatches, ed. Gurwood (London, 1834-1839); Supplementary Wellington Despatches (London, 1858- 1861 and 1867-1872) ; Sir W. Napier, History of War in the Peninsula and South of France (London, 1828-1840); C. W. C. Oman, History of the Peninsular War (London, 1902) ; Sir J. Jones, Journals and Sieges in Spain, 1811-12 (London, 1814); and Account of the War in Spain, Portugal and South of France, 1808-14 (London, 1821) ; Sir J. F. Maurice, Diary of Sir John Moore (London, 1904); Command- ant Balagny, Campagne de I'Empereur Napoleon en Espagne, 1808- 1800 (Paris, 1902); Major-General C. W. Robinson, Wellington's Campaigns (London, 1907) ; Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 1789- 1815 (London, 1835—1842); T. Choumara, Considerations militaires sur les memoires du Marechal Suchet et sur la bataille de Toulouse (Paris, 1838); Commandant Clerc, Campagne du Marechal Soult dans les Pyrenees occidentals en 1813-14 (Paris, 1894); Memoires du Baron Marbot (Paris, 1891 ; Eng. trans, by A. J. Butler, London, 1902) ; H. R. Clinton, The War in the Peninsula, &c. (London, 1889) ; Marshal Suchet's Memoires (Paris, 1826; London, 1829); Captain L. Butler, Wellington's Operations in the Peninsula, 1808-14 (London, 1904); Batty, Campaign of the Left Wing of the Allied Army in the Western Pyrenees and South of France, 1813-14 (London, 1823); Foy, Histoire de la guerre de la Peninsule, &c., sous Napoleon (Paris and London, 1827); Lord Londonderry