■r
liilife
m
'<*:
;^■'■^-
^ VWi
.*■'(/,
m
ii^W«.v N'l''.'t ^V^- ■Br;'' I ',' I'l"^ 1 i .' !»\
iLtiMmAay
REFERENCE.
No
Divisioh
Range
Shelf
Received...
/^<^J
^_^<fe"
...i87<^
;>i>iS
Jc PRINTING, A BINl
>vv
^VFA« -J
' i
Booksellers & Statu
SMITHSONIAN
/i
CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.
VOL. IV.
JITCKT MAN IS A VALUABLE KEKBEB OF SOCIETY, WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, BKSEABCHES, AND EXPEniMENTS, PROCUHKS « ■ KNOWLEDGE FOB MEN. — SmITHSON.
CITY OF WASHINGTON: PUBLISHED BY THE SMIT H S ONI AN-'IN STITUTION.
MDCCCIII.
'^'v'^
"^V
ADVERTISEMENT.
This volume forms the fourth of a series, composed of original memoirs on dif- ferent branches of knowledge, published at the expense, and under the direction, of the Smithsonian Institution. The publication of this series forms part of a general plan adopted for carrying into effect the benevolent intentions of James Smithson, Esq., of 'England. This gentleman left his property in trust to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution which should bear his own name, and have for its objects the ^'■increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." This trust was accepted by the Government of the United States, and an Act of Congress was passed August 10th, 1846, constituting the President and the other principal executive officers of the general government, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Mayor of Washington, and such other persons as they might elect, honorary members, an establishment under the name of the " Smithsonian Institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." The members and honorary members of this establishment are to hold stated and special meetings for the supervision of the affairs of the Institution, and for the advice and instruction of a Board of Regents, to whom the financial and other affairs are entrusted.
The Board of Eegents consists of three members ex officio of the establishment, namely, the Vice-President of the United States, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and the Mayor of Washington, together with twelve other members, three of whom are appointed by the Senate from its own body, three by the House of Representatives from its members, and six persons appointed by a joint resolution of both houses. To this board is given the power of electing a Secretary and other officers, for conducting the active operations of the Institution.
To carry into effect the purposes of the testator, the plan of organization evi- dently should embrace two objects — one, the increase of knowledge by the addition of new truths to the existing stock; the other, the diffusion of knowledge, thus increased, among men. No restriction is made in favor of any kind of knowledge, and hence each branch is entitled to, and should receive, a share of attention.
iv ADVEETISEMENT.
The Act of Congress, establishing the Institution, directs as a part of the plan of organization, the formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of Art, together with provisions for physical research and popular lectures, while it leaves to the Regents the power of adopting such other parts of an organization as they may deem best suited to promote the objects of the bequest.
After much deliberation, the Regents resolved to divide the annual income into two equal parts — one part to be devoted to the increase and diffusion of knowledge by means of original research and publications — the pther half of the income to be applied in accordance with the requirements of the Act of Congress, to the gradual formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of Art.
The following are the details of the two parts of the general plan of organization provisionally adopted at the meeting of the Regents, Dec. 8th, 1847.
DETAILS OF THE FIRST PART OF THE PLAN.
I. To INCREASE Knowledge. — It is proposed to stimulate research, hy offering rewards for original memoirs on all subjects of investigation.
1. The memoirs thus obtained, to be published in a series of volumes, in a quarto form, and entitled " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge."
2. No memoir, on subjects of physical science, to be accepted for publication, which does not furnish a positive addition to human knowledge, resting on original research; and all unverified speculations to be rejected.
3. Each memoir presented to the Institution, to be submitted for examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in the branch to which the memoir pertains ; and to be accepted for publication only in case the report of this commission is favorable.
4. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution, and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless a favorable decision be made.
5. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the Transactions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the colleges, and principal libra- ries, in this country. One part of the remaining copies may be offered for sale; and the other carefully preserved, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from new institutions.
6. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs to be given to the public, through the annual report of the Regents to Congress.
ADVERTISEMENT. v
II. To INCREASE Knowledge. — It is also proposed to appropriate a portion of the income, annually, to special objects of research, under tlie direction of suitable per- sons.
1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended by counsellors of the Institution.
2. Appropriations in different years to different objects; so that, in course of time, each branch of knowledge may receive a share.
3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published, with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.
4. Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made : —
(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the problem of American storms.
(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological, mathematical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the formation of. a Physical Atlas of the United States.
(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determination of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of light; chemical analyses of soils and plants ; collection and publication of articles of science, accumulated in the oflBces of Government.
(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical, moral, and political subjects.
(5.) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated in American history.
(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the different races of men in North America; also explorations, and accurate surveys, of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of our country.
I. To DIFFUSE Knowledge. — It is proposed to publish a series of reports, giving an account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made frmn year to year in all branches of knoioledge not strictly professional.
1. Some of these reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of knowledge may indicate.
2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators, eminent in the different branches of knowledge.
vi ADVEKTISEMENT.
3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publications, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report; to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title-page of the report.
4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons interested in a particular branch, can procure the parts relating to it without purchasing the whole.
5. These reports may be presented to Congress, for partial distribution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific institutions, and sold to indi- viduals for a moderate price.
The following are some of the subjects which may he embraced in ilie reports : —
I. PHYSICAL CLASS.
1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and meteorology.
2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.
3. Agriculture.
4. Application of science to arts.
II. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.
5. Ethnology, including particular history, comparative philology, antiquities, &c.
6. Statistics and political economy.
7. Mental and moral philosophy.
8. A survey of the political events of the world; penal reform, &c.
III. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.
9. Modern literature.
10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.
11. Bibliography.
12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.
II. To DIFFUSE Knowledge. — It is proposed to publish occasionally separate treatises
on subjects of general interest.
1. These treatises may consist of valuable memoirs translated from foreign lan- guages, or of articles prepared under the direction of the Institution, or be pro- cured by offering premiums for the best exposition of a given subject.
2. The treatises to be submitted to a commission of competent judges, previous to their publication.
ADVERTISEMENT. to
DETAILS OF THE SECOND PART OF THE PLAN OF ORGANIZATION.
This part contemplates the formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of Art.
1. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required, consisting, 1st, of a complete collection of the transactions and proceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more important current periodical publications, and other works necessary in preparing the periodical reports.
2. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of objects to verify its own publications. Also a collection of instruments of research in all branches of experimental science.
3. With reference to the collection of books, other than those mentioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first purchased may be such as are not to be found elsewhere in the United States.
4. Also catalogues of memoirs, and of books in foreign libraries, and other materials, should be collected, for rendering the Institution a centre of bibliograr phical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work which he may require.
5. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase by donation, as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make provision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary to purchase any article of this kind.
6. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art, casts of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.
7. The arts may be encouraged, by providing a room, free of expense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union, and other similar societies.
8. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of antiquity, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.
9. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress, will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit new objects of art; distinguished individuals should also be invited to give lectures on subjects of general interest.
In accordance with the rules adopted in the programme of organization, each memoir in this volume has been favorably reported on by a commission appointed
Tiii ADVERTISEMENT.
for its examination. It is however impossible, in most cases, to verify the state- ments of an author, and, therefore, neither the Commission nor the Institution can be responsible for more than the general character of a memoir.
The following rules have been adopted for the distribution of the quarto volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions.
1. They are to be presented to all learned societies which publish Transactions, and give copies of these, in exchange, to the Institution.
2. Also, to all foreign libraries of the first class, provided they give in exchange their catalogues or other publications, or an equivalent from their duplicate volumes.
3. To all the colleges in actual operation in this country, provided they furnish, in return, meteorological observations, catalogues of their libraries and of their students, and all other publications issued by them relative to their organization and history.
4. To all States and Territories, provided there be given, in return, copies of all documents published under their authority.
5. To all incorporated public libraries in this country, not included in any of the foregoing classes, now containing more than 7000 volumes; and to smaller libraries, where a whole State or large district would be otherwise un supplied.
OFFICERS
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,
Ex, officio PRESIDING OFFICER OF THE INSTITUTION.
THE VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,
Ex officio SECOND PRESIDING OFFICER.
ROGER B. TANEY,
CHANCELLOR OF THE INSTITUTION.
JOSEPH HENRY,
SECRETARY OF THE INSTITUTION.
CHARLES C. JEWETT,
ASSISTANT SECRETARY, IN CHARGE OF THE LIBRARY.
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
ASSISTANT SECRETARY, IN CHARGE OF THE MUSEUM.
EDWARD FOREMAN,
GENERAL ASSISTANT.
W. W. SEATON, Treasurer.
ALEXANDER D. BACHE, ^
JAMES A. PEARCE, I Executive Committee.
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN. J
REGENTS.
Vice-President of the United States.
EOGER B. Tanet, Chief Justice of the United States.
Walter Lenox, Mayor of the City of Washington.
James A. Pearce, Member of the Senate of the United States.
Jefferson Davis, " " " " " "
James M. Mason, « « « " " "
Graham N. Fitch, Member of tlie House of Representatives U. S.
William F. Colcock, « " « " " "
James Meacham, " « " " « «
EuFUS Choate, Citizen of Massachusetts.
Gideon Hawlet, " of New York.
William C. Preston, "of South Carolina.
Richard Rush, " of Pennsylvania.
Alexander D. Bache, Memher of Nat. Inst., Washington.
Joseph G. Totten, " " "
MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.
Millard Fillmore, President of the United States.
Vice-President of the United States.
Daniel Webster, ........ Secretary of State.
Thomas Corwin, . Secretary of tlie Treasury.
Charles M. Conrad, Secretary of War.
"William A. Graham, Secretary of the Navy.
Nathan K. Hall, Postmaster- General.
John J. Crittenden, Attorney- General.
Roger B. Taney, Chief Justice of the United States.
Thomas Ewbank, Commissioner of Patents.
Walter Lenox, Mayor of the City of Washington.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Robert Hare, Benjamin Silliman,
Washington Irving, Albert Gallatin.*
(* Deceased.)
GMMMAK AND DICTIONARY
OF THE
DAKOTA LANGUAGE.
COLLECTEB
BY THE MEMBERS OF THE DAKOTA MISSION.
BY REV. S. R. RIGGS, A.M.,
MISSIONARY OF THE AM. BOARD OF COM. FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS.
UNDER THE PATRONAGE OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF MINNESOTA.
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
DECEMBER, 1S51.
R. CSAISHBAD, Printer and SttrtBtyftr, 53 VssxT Stbht, N. V.
NOTICE
This work has been recommended, as an interesting addition to philology and ethnology, by the Minnesota Historical Society, the members of which have contributed funds to defray a part of the expense of publication. It has also received the approbation and support of the American Board of Conmiissioners for Foreign Missions, and, in conformity with the rule adopted by the Smithsonian Institution, has been submitted to a commission of examination, consisting of W. W. Turner, Esq., and Prof C. C. Felton.
In return for the pecuniary assistance rendered, an extra number of copies have been struck off for the use of the Historical Society and the Dakota Mission.
Joseph Henry,
Washington, June 1, 1852. Secretary S. I.
PREFACE.
The preparation of this volume may be regarded as one of the contributions to science made by the great Missionary enterprise of the present age. It was not premeditated, but has been a result altogether incidental to our work. Our object was to preach the Gospel to the Dakotas in their own language, and to teach them to read and write the same, until their circumstances should be so changed as to enable them to learn the English. Hence we were led to study their language and to endeavor to arrive at a knowledge of its principles.
About eighteen years ago, Messrs. S. W. and G. H. Pond, from Washington, Conn., took up their residence among the Indians of the Minnesota Valley. In the summer following Dr. T. S. Williamson and his associates, from Ohio, under the direction of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, reached the same country. They immediately commenced the labor of collecting and ascertaining the meaning of Dakota words.
In the summer of 1837 we joined the mission and engaged in the same labors. Others who reached the country at a later period have rendered much assistance, among whom it is but just to mention the late Rev. Robert Hopkins, of Traverse des Sioux.
In prosecuting this work we have at all times availed ourselves of the best native assistance ; but during the first years of our residence among them, the natives did not know enough to give us the help we needed. If we required the meaning of a word, as, for example, ka^ka (to bind), the reply generally was, "It means 'ka^ka,' and cannot mean any thing else." It is related of Hennepin, that while a captive among these Indians, on a certain occasion he ran off a little distance, and then, running back again, inquired of the braves who sat near, what they called that. In trying to learn the meaning of Dakota words we have often been obliged to adopt similar expedients.
The preparation of the Dakota-English part of the Dictionary for the press, containing more than sixteen thousand words, occupied all the time I could spare from my other missionary employments for more than a year. The labor bestowed on the English-Dakota part was performed partly by Mrs. Riggs.
A manuscript Grammar of the language, written by the Rev. S. W. Pond, was kindly furnished to aid in the preparation of this work; but as it was not received in New York until midwinter, it has been used only in the latter part. Since my arrival in this city, the Grammar has been entirely remodelled and
XIV PREFACE.
rewritten, according to the suggestions and under the direction of Mr. Wm. W, Turner, of the Union Theological Seminary of New York. Of this gentleman's labors in connexion with this work I cannot speak too highly. Not only has he, by his eminent literary qualifications, been able to render valuable assistance in the way of suggestion and criticism, but he has also read with great care the proof- sheets, especially of the Grammar, that nothing might be wanting to make the work, under the circumstances, as perfect as possible. It is proper also to mention the name of Mr. Wm. H. Smith, of New York, who assisted in the revision of the latter .half of the Dictionary, in the absence of Mr. Turner.
About the 1st of January, 1851, a prospectus was issued at St. Paul, under the sanction of the Historical Society of Minnesota, to publish the work by subscription, and in this many of the most prominent citizens of the Territory manifested much interest. Among the larger subscriptions may be mentioned those of Governor Alexander Ramsey, Hon. H. H. Sibley, Hon. Martin McLeod, Rev. E. D. Neill, and H. M. Rice, Esq. The Prudential Committee of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions also made an appropriation for the same object, besides another for defraying the necessary expenses of superintending the press.
These provisions, though liberal, considering the circumstances under which they were made, were not sufficient to warrant the commencement of the publica- tion ; and being informed, in answer to a letter addressed to Professor Joseph Henry, LL.D., that the work, on certain conditions, mights probably be accepted as one of the Contributions to Knowledge of the Smithsonian Institution, it was concluded to present it for that purpose. After passing the prescribed examination, it was accepted by the Institution and directed to be printed.
With the manner in which the work has been brought out, its friends will I trust be fully satisfied. Neither pains nor expense has been spared in the publication. The plan had already been followed, in the books printed in the language, of using the vowels with the sounds which they have in Italian and German, and of repre- senting each articulation by a single character. In the present work a few changes have been introduced into the orthography, for the sake of expressing some of the sounds in a manner more perspicuous and consistent with analogy, and more in accordance with the system of notation which is now becoming general among scientific philologists in Europe. It was necessary in consequence to rearrange a great many of the articles in the manuscript Dictionary, and to have a number of new punches made.
With the hope that it may be the means of interesting some in behalf of the Dakotas, of perpetuating memorials of their language, and affording, to some extent, the means of arriving at correct conclusions in regard to their origin, this work, the result of years of toil, is submitted to the kind regards of its generous patrons.
Stephen R. Riggs.
New York City, 1852.
OTE0DI]CTI0?(.
The nation of the Sioux Indians, or Dakotas, as they call themselves, is supposed to number about twenty-Jive thousand. They are scattered over an immense territory, extending from the Mississippi river on the east to the Black Hills on the west, and from the mouth of the Big Sioux river on the south to Devil's Lake on the north. Early in the winter of 1837, they ceded to the United States all their land lying on the eastern side of the Mississippi ; and this tract at present forms the settled portion of Minnesota. During the summer of 1851, the Commissioner of Indian Afl'airs, with Gov. Ramsey of Minnesota, negotiated with the Dakotas of the Mississippi and Minnesota or Saint Peter's Valley, for all their land lying east of a line running from Otter-tail Lake through Lake Traverse {Lac Travers) to the junction of the Big Sioux river with the Missouri ; the Indians retaining for their own settlements a reservation on the upper Minnesota, twenty miles wide and about one hundred and forty long. This purchase includes all the wooded lands belonging to the Dakotas, and extends, especially on the south side of the Minnesota river, some distance into the almost boundless Prairie of the West. Beyond this, the Indians follow the buifaloes, which, although evidently diminishing in numbers, still range in vast herds over the prairies. This animal furnishes the Indian with food and clothing, and a house, and, during the summer, with the " hois de vache " for fuel. In the winter these sons of the prairie are obliged to pitch their tents at or in the little clustei-s of wood, which here and there skirt the margins of the streams and lakes.
Their name, the Dakotas say, means leagued or allied ; and they sometimes speak of themselves as the 'Oceti sakowii),' Seven council fires. These are the seven principal bands which compose the tribe or nation ; viz. :
1. The Mdewakai)toi)\var)s, Village of the Spirit Lake. Their name is derived from a former resi- ■ dence at Mdewakai) {Spirit or Sacred Lake), Mille Lacs, which are in the country now claimed by the
Ojibwas. They are divided into seven principal villages, three of which are still on the western bank of the Mississippi, and the others on or near the Minnesota, within twenty-five or thirty miles of Fort Snelling. This portion of the Dakota people have received annuities since the year 1838 ; and their number, as now enrolled, is about two thousand. They plant corn and other vegetables, and some of them have made a little progress in civilization.
2. The Walipekutes, Leaf-shooters. It is not now known from what circumstance the Wahpekutes received their name. They are at present a roving band of about five or six hundred, laying claim to the country on Cannon river, the head waters of the Blue Earth, and westward.
3. The Wahpetoqwaqs, Village in the Leaves, probably obtained their name from the fact that formerly they lived only in the woods. The old home of this band is about the Little Rapids, which is some forty-five miles by water from the mouth of the Minnesota river. About three hundred still reside there ; but the larger part of the band have removed to Lac-qui-parle and Big Stone Lake. In all, they number about one thousand or twelve hundred souls. They all plant com, more or less ; and at Lac-qui- parle, one of the Mission stations occupied by the American Board of Commissionei-s for Foreign Missions, they have made some progress in learning to read and write their own language, and have substituted, to some extent, the use of the plough for the hoe.
4. The Sisitoijwaijs, Village of the Marsh. What the meaning of 'sisi ' is, we have not been able to ascertain satisfactorily, as we do not find it in any other combination in the language as now used. But Mr. Joseph Renville, now deceased, who was half Dakota, and considered as the highest authority in
XVI INTRODUCTION.
matters pertaining to the language, said that ' sisiq ' was formerly used to designate a marsh or dough on the prairie. The Marsh Village Dakotas occupy the Minnesota Valley, from Traverse des Sioux to Little Rock, claiming the Swan Lake country on the one side, and the Blue Earth on the other. But the great body of the Sisitoi)war)s have gone north and west, and now make their corn-fields about Lake Traverse and on the Coteau des Prairies. They are supposed to number about twenty-jive hundred, and depend mainly upon the buffalo for a subsistence.
These Mississippi and Minnesota Dakotas are called, by those on the Missouri, Isaijties, from ' isaijati ' or ' isaijyati ;' which name seems to have been given them from the fact that they once lived at Isai)tamde, Knife Lake, one of those included under the denomination of Mille Lacs.
5. The Ihai)ktoi)wai)na, one of the End Village bands, are estimated at four hundred lodges, or four thousand souls. The Dakota tents on the Minnesota do not average more than about six inmates ; but on the prairie, where, though the material for the manufacture of tents is abundant, tent-poles are scarce, they make their dwellings larger, and average, it is thought, about ten persons to a lodge. The Ihaijktoi)- warina are divided into the Huijkpatidaijs (the signification of which is not apparent) ; the Pabakse, Cut-heads ; the Wazikute, Pine-shooters ; and the Kiyuksa, Dividers or Breakers of Law. Their range is alonf the James River, and on the north-east side of the Missouri, up as far as the Devil's Lake. From the Wazikute branch of this band the Assiniboins, or ' Holie ' of the Dakotas, are said to have sprung.
6. The Ihar)ktoi)wafls, Village at the End, are estimated at about two hundred and forty lodges, or two thousand four hundred persons. As a general thing, they are now found west of the Missouri. These two bands have usually been designated by travellers under the name of ' Yanctons.'
7. The Titoi)war)s, Village of the Prairie, are supposed to constitute about one half of the whole Dakota tribe, numbering, as they say, about twelve hundred and fifty lodges, or twelve thousand five hundred souls. The great probability is, that they are over estimated. They live on the western side of the Missouri, and take within their range the Black Hills. With the Shyennes and Kiccarees, it is said, they have formed marriage alliances, and are at war with the Pawnees and others. The Titoi)war)s have never planted corn, with the exception of a few families, and they were connected by marriage with white people. They are divided into seven bands or clans; viz. the Sicarigu, Burnt- Thighs ; the Itazipco, Bow-pith ; the Sihasapa, Black-feet ; the Minikaijye wozupi. Those who Plant by the Water ; the Oohenoqpa, Two-boilings ; and the Oglala and Iluijkpapa, the meanings of which names have not been ascertained.
The more recent migration of the Dakotas has been from north-east to south-west and west. This appears from the names Mdewakaritoijwai) and Isaijati, before mentioned. Besides, there are Dakotas still living who remember when the Ihaijktoflwa^jna were occupants of Lac-qui-parle and other points on the upper Minnesota, from which fact they probably derived their name, as being at the end of the stream. At that time the Sisitoqwaijs were all below, in the great bend of the Saint Peter's ; the Wahpetoqwaqs and the Wahpekutes were inhabitants of the Big Woods and the lower part of the Minnesota Valley ; the Mdewakaijtoriwaijs were on the eastern side of the Mississippi ; and the Titoi)wai)S had probably not crossed to the west of the Missouri.
Questions of priority and precedence among these bands are sometimes discussed. The Mdewa- kar)toi)wai)s think that the mouth of the Minnesota river is precisely over the centre of the earth, and that they occupy the gate that opens into the western world. These considerations serve to give them importance in their own estimation. On the other hand the Sisitoqwaqs and Ihai)ktor)wai)s allege, that as they live on the great water-shed of this part of the continent, from which the streams run northward and eastward and southward and westward, thsy must be about the centre of the earth ; and they urge this fact as entitling them to the precedence. It is singular that the Titoi)wai)s, who are much the largest band of the Dakotas, do not appear to claim the chief place for themselves, but yield to the pretensions of the Ihaqktoijwaijs, whom they call by the name of Wiciyela, which, in its meaning, may be regarded as about equivalent to ' they are the people.'
As the main object of this work has been to place before the student what is known about the Dakota language, it is only necessary here to add a few remarks in reference to some points of interest which are not fully brought out elsewhere.
In the language, as spoken by the different bands of those properly denominated Dakotas, some differences exist. The intercourse between the Mdewakai)toqwai)s on the Mississippi and lower Minnesota, and the Wahpetoi)war|s, Wahpekutes, and a part of the Sisitoijwai) family, has been so constant, that but slight variations are discoverable in their manner of speaking. In some instances where the Wahpetoij-
INTRODTJCTION. XVU
wai)s use d, some of the Mdewakai)tor)wai)s so modify the sound that it hecomes t ; and where the former use h, the hitter sometimes employ n. As a matter of course, some few words have currency in one band which are not used, perhaps not generally known, by the othere ; but none of the dialectical variations are of such a kind as to impede the free intercourse of thought. The Sisitor)wai)s of Lake Traverse and the prairies present more differences in their speech. One of the most marked of these is their use of ' na ' for ' dai),' the diminutive termination. As there is less frequent intercourse between them and the Isaqties, their provincialisms are more numerous ; and from their connexions with the Ihai)ktoi)wai)s of the prairie, they have adopted some of their forms of speech. The chief peculiarity of the Ihaijktoijwai) dialect, as compared with that of the Dakotas of the Minnesota, is the almost universal substitution of k for h. The Titoqwai) dialect exhibits more striking differences. In it, g hard is used for h of the Isaqties and k of the Ihaqktoijwaijs, and rejecting d altogether, they use I in its stead. ]5y the bands of Dakotas east of James river, hard g is not heard except as final in some syllables where contraction has taken place, and / does not occur. Thus, to illustrate the foregoing, ' daqpahmihma,' a cart or waggon, of the Wahpetoqwai)s, becomes ' oaqpanminma ' in the mouth of a Mdewakaijtoqwai), ' caqpakmikma' in that of an Ihaqktoqwai), and ' caqpagmigma' with a Titoqwaq. ' Hda,' to go home, of the Isaqties, is 'kda' in the Ihaqktoqwaq dialect, and 'gla' in the Titoqwaq. Many words, too, are entirely different, as for example, ' isaq,' a A;m/e ; the Titoqwaqs say ' milla,' and the Ihaqktoqwaqs, 'miqna.' Isaqtaqka, the name by which the people of the United States are designated on the Mississippi and Minnesota, becomes Miqnahaqska and Millahaqska on the Missouri.
In the arrangement of words in a sentence, the Dakota language may be regarded as eminently primi- tive and natural. The sentence, ' Give me bread,' a Dakota transposes to ' Aguyapi maku ye,' Bread me give. Such is the genius of the language, that in translating a sentence or verse from the Bible, it is generally necessary to commence, not at the beginning, but at the end ; and such, too, is the common practice of their best interpreters. Where the person who is speaking leaves off, there they commence, and proceed backwards to the beginning. In this way the connexion of the sentences is more easily retained in the mind, and more naturally evolved. There are, however, some cases in which this method cannot be followed. In a logical argument, if the conclusion is first translated, it will, in some cases, need to be repeated after the premises', but the therefore which connects the conclusion to the premises, very frequently, in Mr. Renville's translations, comes after the conclusion. This method of expressing ideas, so entirely different from that to which our mirlds have been accustomed, makes it difficult ta learn to thinkJu-JJakota.
Sacred Language. — The Dakota conjurer, the war-prophet, and the dreamer, experience the same need that is felt by more elaborate performers among other nations, of a language which is unintelligible to the common people, for the purpose of impressing upon them the idea of their superiority. Their dreams, according to their own account, are revelations made from the spirit-world, and their prophetic visions are what they saw and knew in a former state of existence. It is, then, only natural that their dreams and visions should be clothed in words many of which the multitude do not understand. This sacred language is not very extensive, since the use of a few unintelligible words suffices to make a whole speech incomprehensible. It may be said to consist, first, in employing words as the names of things which seem to have been introduced from other Indian languages ; as, nide, water ; paza, wood, &c. In the second place, it consists in employing descriptive expressions, instead of the ordinary names of things ; as in calling a man a biped, and the wolf a quadruped. And thirdly, words which are common in the language are used far out of their ordinary signification ; as, hepaq, the second child, if a hoy, is used to designate the otter. When the Dakota braves ask a white man for an ox or cow, they generally call it a dog ; and when a sachem begs a horse from a white chief, ho does it under the designation of moccasins. This is the source of many of the figures of speech in Indian oratory ; but they are sometimes too obscure to bo beautiful.
The Dakotas can hardly bo said to know any thing about poetry. A few words make a long song, for the ' Hi-hi-hi-hi-hi ' is only now and then interrupted by the enunciation of words. Sometimes their war-songs are so highly figurative that their meaning is just the opposite of what the expressions used would naturally convey. To a young man who has acted very bravely, by killing an enemy and taking his scalp, they say, " Friend, thou art a fool : thou hast let the Ojibwas strike thee." This is understood to be the highest form of eulogy.
The mourning song of Black-hoy for his grandson, published in the Dakota Friend by Rev. G. H. Pond, will illustrate the abounding repetition of the same thought expressed in the same words, in their songs. " The unearthliness of the scene," says Mr. Pond, " cannot be described, as, in the twilight of the morning, while the mother of the deceased boy, whose name was Makadutawiq, Red-Earth- Woman, was wailing
XVIU INTRODUCTION.
in a manner which would excite tlie sympathies of the hardest heart, Hoksidaq-sapa, Black-boy, standing on the brow of a hill, addressed himself to the ghostly inhabitants of the spirit-world, in ghostly notes, as follows : —
' Koda, ahitoijwai) yaqka wo ;
Koda, ahitoijwar) yarjka wo ;
Koda, ahitoijwai) yaijka wo;
Hoksidaq-sapa takozakpaku wai) u do.
Eyapi nuqwe.'
Friend, pause and look this way ; Friend, pause and look this way ; Friend, pause and look this way ; Say ye, A grandson of Black-boy is coming."
Dakota Method of Counting. — Counting is usually done by means of their fingers. If you ask some Dakotas how many there are of any thing, instead of directing their answer to your organs of hearing, they present it to your sight, by holding up so many fingers. When they have gone over the fingers and thumbs of both hands, one is temporarily turned down for one ten. Eleven is ten more one, or more commonly af/ain one ; iwelue is affain two, and so on ; nineteen is th". other nine. At the end of the next ten another finger is turned down, and so on. Twenty is ttco tens, thirty is three tens, etc., as will be seen by referring to the section on Numeral Adjectives in the Grammar. Opawirige, one hundred, is probably derived from pawiqga, to c/o round in circles or to make gyrations, as the fingers have been all gone over again for their respective tens. The Dakota word for a thousand, kektopawirige, may be formed of 'ake' and 'opawiqge,' hundreds again, having now completed the circle of their fingere in hundreds, and being about to commence again. They have no separate word to denote any higher number than a thousand. There is a word to designate one half of any thing, but none to denote any smaller aliquot part.
Counting Time. — The Dakotas have names for the natural divisions of time. Their years they ordinarily count by winters. A man is so many winters old, or so many winters have passed since such an event. When one is going on a journey, he does not usually say that he will be back in so many days, as we do, but in so many nights or sleeps. In the same way they compute distance by the number of nights passed in making the journey. They have no division of time into weeks. Their months are literally moons. The popular belief is that when the moon is full, a great number of very small mice commence nibbling on one side of it, which they continue to do until they have eaten it all up. Soon after this another moon begins to grow, which goes on increasing until it has reached its full size only lo share the fate of its predecessor ; so that with them the new moon is really new, and not the old one re-appearing. To the moons they have given names, which refer to some prominent physical fiict that occurs about that time in the year. ■ For the names of the moons most commonly used by the Dakotas living in the Valley of the Minnesota, with their significations and the months to which they most nearly correspond, the reader is referred to the word ' wi,' Part I. of the Dictionary.
Five moons are usually counted to the winter, and five to the summer, leaving only one each to the spring and autumn ; but this distinction is not closely adhered to. The Dakotas often have very warm debates, especially towards the close of the winter, about what moon it is. The raccoons do not always make their appearance at the same time every winter ; and the causes which produce sore eyes are not developed precisely at the same time in each successive spring. All these variations make room for strong arguments in a Dakota tent for or against Wicata-wi or Istawidayazar)-wi. But the main reason for their frequent difi^erence of opinion in regard to this matter, viz. that twelve lunations do not bring them to the point from which they commenced counting, never appears to have suggested itself. In order to make their moons coreespond with the seasons, they are obliged to pass over one every few years.
Beligion. — This subject can only be referred to briefly. The Dakotas have, indeed, " gods many " — their imaginations have peopled both the visible and invisible world with mysterious or spiritual beings, who are continually exerting themselves in reference to the human family, either for weal or woe. These spiritual existences inhabit every thing, and, consequently, almost every thing is an object of worship. On the same occasion, a Dakota dances in religious homage to the sun and moon, and spreads out his hands in prayer to a painted stone ; and he finds it necessary to ofier sacrifices more frequently to the Bad-spirit than to the Great-spirit. He has his god of the north and god of the south, his god of the woods and god of the prairie, his god of the air and god of the waters. No one can witness
INTRODUCTION. ^ XUC
the religious ceremonies of this people without being deeply impressed with the fact, that what Paul said of the Athenians is true, to a very great extent, of the Dakotas, xarol -ravra us SsKSiSaifLovsiTs^oi, in all things very worshipful. It will not, then, be regarded as an unnecessary work, to make known to such a people the God who made the earth and all things therein, and who has appointed a day in the which he will judge the world in righteousness, by that Man whom he hath ordained, even the Lord Jesus Christ.
That the aboriginal tribes of this continent are destined to become extinct, and that consequently there is little reason to hope that any thing can be done for their permanent good, seems to be a very common impression. In regard to this point there are a few questions which deserve to be noticed briefly.
First, it must be conceded, as a matter of history, that many tribes and bands which once inhabited the country now occupied by the people of these United States have greatly diminished, and some of them have disappeared altogether. War, and 'spirit-water,' and the diseases introduced among them by the white people, have wrought out their legitimate efl'ects. A different course of treatment would undoubtedly have greatly modified or entirely changed the character of these results. But, admitting the woret in regard to the past, an interesting question here presents itself, viz. : How far has the diminution of the Indians, as such, served to increase the numbers of our own white population ?
Secondly, in reference to the question of decrease, there are some sources of deception of which most persons do not setm to be aware. The Dakotas, for instance, twenty yeafs ago, were supposed to number thirty thousand ; but our investigations have led us to estimate them at twenty-five thousand. If, twenty years from this time, it shall appear that they do not number more than twenty thousand (which may be the case), the natural inference will undoubtedly be that they have been decreasing. But we think there is evidence to show that this has not been and is not now the fact. Where an account of the births and deaths has been kept at a village, it is found that the former usually exceed the latter. If it is asked, ' Whence then comes this supposed diminution of numbers V I answer, from the fact that in most if not all "cases the wild Indians have been greatly over-estimated. It has been found not only difficult, but oftentimes impossible, to take a correct census of those bands who receive annuities from the United States Government. But the difficulty is greatly increased when we go into their camps on the great prairies of the West. The traveller finds them very sensibly impressed with their own numerical importance, and not unfrequently has his gravity disturbed by the question, whether the Government of the United States would not probably be defeated in case of a collision with them, lie also finds much opposition to his making any systematic efforts to ascertain their real numbers. The only practicable method one can adopt is to count their tipis, or skin tents ; and it were easier to count ten thousand buffaloes, scattered over a hundred hills and valleys, than to make a reliable estimate of a tribe of Indians who are constantly roving over the western prairies. With this experience in efforts to ascertain the number of our wandering tribes, we are forced to the conclusion that in most, if not all cases, they have been over- estimated ; and consequently the reduction of their computed numbers has arisen only from a closer approximation to truth, and should not be received as evidence that they are decreasing.
But there is one way in which a diminution of some tribes is taking place, viz. : by ceasing to be Indians and becoming members of civilized society. In Minnesota all persons of mixed blood, i. e. of white and Indian descent, are recognised as citizens of the Territory. Let this privilege be extended, on certain conditions, to the whole nation, as well as to all others, and many of them will soon come up to the stature of men. The Indian tribes of our continent may become extinct as such ; but if this extinction is brought about by introducing them to civilization and Christianity, and merging them into our own great nation, which is receiving accretions from all others, who will deplore the result ? Rather let us labor for it, realizing that if by our efforts they cease to be Indians and become fellow-citizens, it will be our glory and joy. So may our Christian American nation go on gathering into its fraternal arms all peoples and languages, and thus work out its mission of peace and good-will.
DAKOTA BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Sioux Spelling Book, designed for the use of native learners. 12mo., pp. 22. Boston : Crocker and
Brewster, for the A. B. C. F. M. 1836.
2. Wiconi Owihanke Wannin Tanin Kin. 12mo., pp. 23. Boston : Crocker and Brewster, for the
A. B. C. F. M. 1837. This little tract contains Dr. Watts's Second Catechism for Children, translated into the Dakota by Joseph Renville, Sen., and Dr. T. S. Williamson.
3. The Dakota First Reading Book. 18mo., pp. 50. Cincinnati, Ohio : Kendall and Henry, for the
A. B. C. F. M. 1839. Prepared by Gideon H. Pond and Stephen R. Riggs.
4. Josep Oyakapi Kin — the History of Joseph and his Brethren. 18mo., pp. 40. Cincinnati : Kendall
and Henry, for the A. B. C. F. M. 1839. This is a translation of the narrative recorded in Genesis, by Rev. Gideon H. and Samuel W. Pond.
5. Old Testament Extracts. 18mo., pp. 120. Cincinnati, Ohio: Printed by Kendall and Henry, for 9 the A. B. C. F. M. 1839. This volume contains extracts from Genesis and the Psalms, the third
chapter of Proverbs, and the third chapter of Daniel.
6. Wotanin Waxte Markus Owa Kin Dee. The Gospel of Mark. 18mo., pp. 96. Cincinnati: Kendall
and Henry, for the A. B. C. F. M. 1839. The translations of this and the Old Testament Extracts were made from the French by Mr. Joseph Renville, Sen. ; written out and prepared for the press by Dr. T. S. Williamson. v. Wowapa Mitawa — My Own Book. 12mo., pp. 64. Boston : Crocker and Brewster, for the A. B. C. F. M. 1842. Prepared from Rev. T. H. Gallaudet's ' Mother's Primer ' and ' Child's Picture Defining and Reading Book,' by S. R. Riggs, A. M.
8. Wowapi Inonpa : The Dakota Second Reading Book. ISmo., pp. 64. Boston : Crocker and
Brewster, for the A. B. C. F. M. 1842. By Rev. S. W. Pond. This little volume, designed for a school book, consists of Bible stories from the Old Testament.
9. Dakota Dowanpi Kin — Dakota Hymns. 18mo., pp. 97. Boston: Crocker and Brewster, for the
A. B. C. F. M. 1842. These Hymns were composed in the Dakota language by Mr. Joseph Renville and Sons, and the Missionaries of the Am. Board.
10. Woahope Wikcemna Kin. (Sheet.) The Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer, in the
Dakota language. Boston: 1842.
11. Eliza Marpicokawin, Raratonwan oyate en Wapiye sa ; qa Sara warpanica qon, &c. 12mo., pp. 12.
Boston : Crocker and Brewster, for the A. B. C. F. M. 1842. A narrative of- pious Indian women : published by the American Tract Society.
12. Wicoicage Wowapi qa Odowan Wakan, &c. : The Book of Genesis, a part of the Psalms, and the
Gospels of Luke and John. 12mo., pp. 295. Cincinnati, Ohio : Kendall and Barnard, for the A. B. C. F. M. 1842. These translations were made partly from the original Hebrew and Greek, and partly from the French, into Dakota, by Dr. T. S. Williamson, Rev. G. H. Pond, S. R. Riggs, and Joseph Renville, Sen.
13. Jesus Ohnihde Wicaye cin Oranyanpi Qon : qa Palos Wowapi Kage ciqon, &c. 12mo., pp. 228.
Cincinnati, Ohio : Kendall and Barnard, for the American Bible Society. 1843. This volume contains the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of Paul, and the Revelation of John, in the Dakota language, translated from the Greek by Stephen R. Riggs, A. M.
14. Dakota Wiwangapi Wowapi: Sioux Catechism. 12mo., pp. 12. 1844. New Haven, Conn. : Hitch-
cock and Stafford, for the A. B. C. F. M. By Rev. S. W. Pond.
15. Dakota Tawoonspe, or Dakota Lessons : a' book designed for Schools. 12mo., pp. 96. Louisville,
Ky. 1850. Prepared by S. R. Riggs. The printing of this little book was superintended by Rev. R. Hopkins.
16. Dakota Tawaxitku Kin, The Dakota Friend, a small monthly paper, in Dakota and English,
published at St. Paul by the Dakota Mission. 1851-52. Rev. G. H. Pond, Editor.
17. Grammar and Dictionary of the Dakota Language (the present work). 4to., pp. 412. 1852.
18. An English and Dakota Vocabulary, by a Member of the Dakota Mission. 8vo., pp. 120. A re-
print of the English-Dakota part of the large Dictionary. Printed by R. Craighead, 53 Vesey street, New York, 1852.
GRAMMAR
OF THE
DAKOTA LANGUAGE.
DAKOTA GRAMMAR.
PART FIRST.
ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS AND THEIR CHANGES.
CHAPTER I.
THE ALPHABET. VOWELS.
§ 1. The vowels are five in number, and have each one uniform sound, except when followed by the nasal 'q,' which somewhat modifies them.
a, has the sound of EngHsh a in father.
e, has the sound of English e in they, or of a in face.
i, has the sound of i in marine, or of e in me.
o, has the sound of English o in go, note.
u, has the sound of English u in rule, or of oo in food.
CONSONANTS.
§ 2. The consonants are twenty-four in number, exclusive of the sound repre- sented by the apostrophe (').
b, has its common English sound.
6, is an aspirate with the sound of EngUsh ch, as in chin. This was formerly represented by c simply.
i, is an emphatic 6. It is formed by pronouncing ' 6 ' with a strong pressure of the organs, followed by a sudden expulsion of the breath.
d, has the common English sound.
g, has the sound of ^ hard, as in go.
g, represents a deep sonant guttural resembling the Arabic ghain (^). Formerly represented by g simply.
h, has the sound of h in EngUsh. *"
h, represents a strong surd guttural resembling the Arabic kha (^). For- merly represented by r.
k, has the same sound as in English.
4 ORTHOGRAPHY.
k, is an emphatic letter, bearing the same relation to k that ' (J ' does to ' 6.' Formerly represented by q.
1, has the common sound of this letter in English. It is peculiar to the Titoqwaq dialect.
m, has the same sound as in English.
n, has the common sound of n in English.
q, denotes a nasal sound similar to the French n in bon, or the English n in drink. Formerly represented by n.
p,^ has the sound of English p, with a little more volume and stress of voice.
p, is an emphatic, bearing the same relation to p that ' (J ' does to ' 6.'
s,' has the surd sound of English s, as in say.
s, is an aspirated s, having the sound of English sA, as in shine. For- merly represented by x.
t, is the same as in English with a little more volume of voice.
t, is an emphatic, bearing the same relation to t that ' (J ' does to ' 6.'
w, has the power of the English w, as in walk.
y, has the sound of English y, as in yet.
z, has the sound of the common English z, as in zehra.
i, is an aspirated z, having the sound of the French j, or the English * in pleasure. Formerly represented by j.
The apostrophe (') is used to mark a hiatus, as in s'a. It seems to be analo- gous to the Arabic hamzeh (£)
Note. — Some Dakotas, in some instances, introduce a slight h sound before the m, and also a d sound before n. For example, the preposition ' om,' with, is by some persons pronounced obm, and the preposition ' en,' in, is sometimes spoken as if it should be written edn. But as this mode of speaking is not very common, it has been deemed unnecessary to notice it further.
For the sake of attaining to a uniform method of notation in the writing of American languages, it would perhaps have been better to dispense with the nasal n, and to represent the nasal sound of vowels by a mark underneath the vowel ; but as the Dictionary was already prepared for the press before this was suggested, and such a change would very much disarrange the words in the vocabulary, it has not been made.
CHAPTER II.
SYLLABICATION.
§ 3. Syllables in the Dakota language terminate in a pure or nasalized vowel, as ma-ka, the earth, taq-yaq, well. To this rule there are some exceptions, viz.:
a. The preposition ' en,' in, and such words as take it for a suffix, as, petan, oji the fire, tukten, where, etc. ; together with some adverbs of time, as, dehan, now, hehan, then, tohan, when, etc.
h. When a syllable is contracted into a single consonant (see § 11), that conso- nant is attached to the preceding vowel ; as, om, with, from o-pa, to follow ; wai)- yag, from waq-ya-ka, to see ; ka-ki6, from ka-ki-^a, to suffer ; bo-sim-^i-pa, to shoot off, instead of bo-si-pa-si-pa.
c. There are some other syllables which end in k ; as, is, he, nis, thou, mis, /,
ACCENTS. d
nakaes, indeed, etc. These may possibly be forms of contraction, but we have not now the means of showing the fact.
CHAPTER III.
ACCENTS.
Place of Accent.
§ 4. 1. In the Dakota language all the syllables are enunciated plainly and fully ; but every word that is not a monosyllable, has in it one or more accented syllables, which, as a general thing, are easily distinguished from such as are not accented. The importance of observing the accent is seen in the fact that the meaning of a word often depends upon it ; as, maga, afield, maga, a goose ; okiya, to aid, okiya, to speak to.
2. More than two thirds, perhaps three fourths, of all Dakota words of two or more syllables, have their principal accent on the secoiid syllable from the beginning, as will be seen by a reference to the Dictionary ; the greater part of the remaining words have it on the first.
3. a. In polysyllabic words there is usually a secondary accent, which falls on the second syllable after the primary one ; as, tewoskantiiya, in a desert place ; i6iy6- peya, to barter.
h. But if the word be compounded of two nouns, or a noun and a verb, each will retain its own accent, whether they fall two degrees apart or not ; as, aguyapi- i6apai}, {wheat-heater^ a fiail ; inmu-sl'iqka, {cat-dog) a domestic cat ; aki6ita- ndziq, to stand guard.
Removal of Accent.
§ 5. 1. Suffixes do not appear to have any effect upon the accent; but a syllable prefixed or inserted before the accented syfiable draws the accent back, so that it still retains the same position with respect to the beginning of the word ; as, nape, hand, minape, my hand ; baksa, to cut off with a knife, bawaksa, / cut off ; mdaska, fiat, ^aqmdaska, boards ; maga, afield, mitamaga, my field.
When the accent is on the first syllable of the word the prefixing of a syllable does not always remove it ; as, noge, the ear, man6ge, my car.
2. The same is true of any number of syfiables prefixed ; as, kaska, to bind, wakaska, / bind, wi6awakaska, / hiyid them.
3. a. If the verb be accented on the second syllable, and pronouns be inserted after it, they do not affect the primary accent ; as, wa^tedaka, to love, wastewadaka, / love something.
b. But if the verb be accented on the first syllable, the introduction of a pronoun removes the accent to the second syllable, as, mani, to walk, mawani, / walk.
In some cases, however, the accent is not removed ; as, ohi, to reach to, 6wahi, I reach.
4. When ' wa ' is prefixed to a word commencing with a vowel, and an elision
b ORTHOGRAPHY.
takes place, the accent is thrown on ths first syllable ; as, iyuskiq, to rejoice in, wiyuskiq, to rejoice; amdeza, c/ear, wamdeza ; amdosa, the red-winged black-bird, wamdosa.
5. When ' wo ' is prefixed to adjectives and verbs forming of them abstract nouns, the accent is placed on the first syllable ; as, pida, glad, wopida, gladness ; waoq- ^ida, merciful, wowaoqsida, mercy ; ihaqgya, to destroy, woihaqgye, a destroying.
6. So also when the first syllable of a word is dropped or merged into a pro- nominal prefix, the accent is removed to the first syllable ; as, kiksiiya, to remember, miksuya, remember me.
CHAPTER IV.
CHANGES OF LETTERS.
Commutation.
§ 6, 1. 'A' or 'aij' final in verbs, adjectives, and some adverbs, is changed to ' e,' when followed by auxiliary verbs, or by certain conjunctions or adverbs. Thus,
a. When an uncontracted verb in the singular number ending with ' a ' or ' aq ' precedes another verb, as the infinitive mood or participle, the ' a ' or ' aq ' becomes ' e ;' as, ya, to go, ye kiya, to cause to go ; niwaq, to swim, niwe kiya, to cause to swim ; niwe uq, he is swimming.
b. ' A ' or ' aq ' final in verbs, when they take the sign of the future tense or the negative adverb immediately after, and when followed by some conjunctions, is changed into ' e ;' as, yuke kta, there will be some ; mde kte sni, / will not go.
To this there are a number of exceptions. Ba, to blame, and da, to ask or beg, are not changed. Some of the Mdewakai)toi)\vai)s say ta kta for te kta, he will die. The Sisitoqwaqs say tii) kta. Ohnaka, to place any thing in, is not changed ; as, " minape kiq takudai) ohnaka sni wauri," / have nothing in my hand. Ipuza, to be thirsty, remains the same ; as, ipuza kta ; "tuwe ipuza kighaij," etc., " let him that is athirst coined'' Yuha, to lift, carry, in distinction from yuha, to have, possess, is not changed ; as, mduha sni, / cannot lift it.
c. Verbs and adjectives singular ending in ' a' or ' aq,' when the connexion of the members of the sentence is close, always change it into ' e ;' as, ksape <^a waste, wise and good ; waqmdake (Ja wakute, / saw and I shot it.
d. 'A' and 'aq' final become 'e' before the adverb 'liiqcia' and the particle ' do ;' as, side hiqda, very bad ; waste kte do, it will be good. Some adverbs follow this rule ; as, taqye tiq, very well ; which is sometimes contracted into taqyeh.
But ' a ' or ' ar) ' final is always retained before tuka, uqkar), uqkags, e^ta, ita, kes, and perhaps some others.
2. a. Substantives ending in ' a ' sometimes change it to ' e ' when a possessive pronoun is prefixed ; as, suqka, dog ; mitasuqke, my dog ; nitasuqke, thy dog ; tasuqke, his dog.
b. So, on the other hand, ' e ' final is changed to ' a,' in forming some proper names ; as, Ptaqsiqta, the name given to the south end of Lake Traverse, from ptaq and siqte.
CHANGES OF LETTERS.
/
§ 7. 1. a. When 'k' and 'k,' as in kiq and kiqhaq, ka and kehaq, etc., are preceded by a verb or adjective whose final ' a ' or ' aq ' is changed for the sake of euphony into 'e,' the 'k' or 'k' following becomes '6' or '(J;' as yuhe diqhai), if he has, instead of ynha kiqhaq ; yuke c^ehaq, token there tvas, instead of yukaq !^ehaq.
b. But if the proper ending of the preceding word is 'e,' no such change takes place ; as, wa^te kigliar), if he is good ; Wakaqtaqka ape ka wastedaka wo, hope in God and love him.
2. When ' ya,' the pronoun of the second person singular and nominative case, precedes the inseparable prepositions ' ki,' to, and ' ki6i,' for, the ' ki ' and ' ya ' are changed, or rather combined, into ' ye ;' as, ye6aga, thou makest to, instead of yaki^aga ; ye6i6aga, thou makest for one, instead of yakicidaga. In like manner the pronoun ' wa,' /, when coming in conjunction with ' ki,' forms ' we ;' as, wedaga, not waki6aga, from kidaga. Wowapi we6age kta, / tvill make him a book, i. e. / will write him a letter.
3. a. When a pronoun or preposition ending in ' e ' or ' i ' is prefixed to a verb whose initial letter is ' k,' this letter is changed to ' 6 ;' as, kaga, to make, ki6aga, to make to or for one ; kaksa, to cut off, ki6i6aksa, to cut off for one.
b. But if a consonant immediately follows the ' k,' it is not changed ; as, kte, to kill, nikte, he kills thee. In accordance with the above rule, they say 6i6ute, / shoot thee ; they do not however say kidute, but kikute, he shoots for one.
c. This change does not take place in adjectives. They say kata, hot, nikata, thou art hot ; ku^a, lazy, niku^a, thou art lazy.
§ 8. 1. ' T ' and ' k ' when followed by ' p ' are interchangeable ; as iijkpa, iqtpa, the end of any thing; wakpa, watpa, a river ; siqkpe, siqtpe, a muskrat.
2. In the Ihaqktoqwai) dialect, ' k ' is often used for ' h ' of the Wahpetoqwai) ; as, kdi, to arrive at home, for hdi ; daqpakmikma, a cart or waggon, for daqpahmihma. In the same circumstances the Titoqwaqs use 'g,' and the Mdewakaqtoqwaqs ' n ;' as, daqpagmigma, daqpanminma.
3. In the Titoqwar) dialect, '1' is used for 'd,' as, gh, to come home, for hdi; and also for ' n,' as, lila, very, for nina. OoicoV- - V\^^
§ 9. 1. When two words come together so as to form one, the latter of which commences and the former ends with a vowel, that of the first word is sometimes dropped ; as, daqtokpani, to desire or long for, of 6ar)te, the heart, and okpani, to fail of; wakpidahda, by the side of a river, from wakpa and i6ahda ; wi6ota, many persons, from wi6a and ota. Tak eya, what did he say ? is sometimes used for taku eya.
2. In some cases also this elision takes place when the second word commences with a consonant ; as, napkawiq and namkawiq, to beckon with the hand, of nape and kawiq.
3. Sometimes when two vowels come together, ' w ' or ' y ' is introduced between them for the sake of euphony ; as, owihaqke, the end, from o and ihaqke ; niyate, thy father, from the pronoun ni, thy, and ate, father.
§ 10. The 'yu' of verbs commencing with that syllable is not unfrequently dropped when the pronoun of the first person plural is used ; as, yuha, to have, uqhapi, we have ; yuza, to hold, uqzapi, toe hold. Yiiza also becomes oze, which
ORTHOGRAPHY.
may be oyuze contracted ; as, Makatooze, the Blue Earth river, lit. where the blue earth is taken ; oze ^i6a, had to catch.
Contraction.
§ 11. 1. Contractions take place in some nouns when combined with a following noun, and in some verbs when they occupy the position of the infinitive or parti- ciple. The contraction consists in dropping the vowel of the final syllable and changing the preceding consonant usually into its corresponding sonant or vice versa, which then belongs to the syllable that precedes it ; as, yus from yuza, to hold ; tom from topa, four. The following changes occur :
z into s ; as, )aiza, to hold any thing ; yus nai;ir), to stand holding.
i. into s ; as, kaki^a, to suffer ; kakis wauq, / am suffering.
g into h ; as, maga, afield, and maga, a goose, are contracted into mah.
k into g ; as, waqyaka, to see any thing, is contracted into waqyag.
p into m ; as, topa, four, is contracted into tom ; watopa, to paddle or row a
boat, is contracted into watom. t into d ; as, odota the reduplicated form of ota, many, much. t into g ; as, bozag^ata the reduplicated form of boiiata, to make forked by
punching. 6, t, and y, into n ; as, wani6a, none, becomes wanin ; yuta, to eat any thing, becomes yun ; kuya, below, becomes kun.
2. The article 'kiq ' is sometimes contracted into 'g;' as, oyate kig, the people, contracted into oyateg.
3. Caqte, the heart, is contracted into 6an; as, ianwaste, glad (6aqte anrf wa^te, heart-good).
4. When a syllable ending in a nasal (r)) has added to it ' m ' or ' n,' the con- tracted form of the syllable that succeeded, the nasal sound is lost in the ' m ' or ' n,' and is consequently dropped ; as, 6ar)nuqpa, to smoke a pipe, 6aqnum mani, he smokes as he walks ; kakig6a, to scrape, kakin iyeya.
Contracted words may generally be known by their termination. When con- traction has not taken place, the rule is that every syllable ends with either a pure or nasalized vowel. See § 3.
PART SECOND,
ETYMOLOGY. WORDS AND THEIR INFLECTIONS.
CHAPTER I.
PRONOUNS.
§ 12. Dakota pronouns may be classed as personal (simple and compound), interrogative, relative, and demonstrative pronouns, together with the definite and indefinite pronouns or articles.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
§ 13. To personal pronouns belong person, number, and case.
1. There are three persons, the first, second, and third.
2. There are three numbers, the singular, dual, and plural. The dual is only of the first person ; it includes the person speaking and the person spoken to, and has the form of the first person plural, but without the termination ' pi.'
3. Pronouns have three cases, nominative, objective, and possessive.
§ 14. The simple pronouns may be divided into separate and incorporated ; i. e. those which form separate words, and those which are prefixed to or inserted into verbs, adjectives, and nouns.
Separate.
§ 15. 1. a. The separate pronouns are. Sing., mi^, /, ni^, thou, \h, he. The Plural of these forms is designated by employing ' uqki6 ' for the first person, ' ni6 ' for the second, and ' is ' for the third, and adding ' pi ' at the end of the last principal word in the phrase. Dual, uqki^, (/ and thou) we two.
h. Another set of separate pronouns, of perhaps more frequent occurrence, are. Sing., miye, I, niye, thmi, iye, he. The Plural of these forms is denoted by 'uqkiye' for the first person, ' niye ' for the second, and ' iye' for the third, and adding ' pi ' at the end either of the pronoun itself or of the last principal word in the phrase. Dual, uqkiye, (/ and thou) we two.
2. These pronouns are used for the sake of emphasis, that is to say, they are employed as emphatic repetitions of the subjective or objective pronoun contained in the verb ; as, mis wakaga, (/ I-made) I made ; miye mayakaga, (me me-thou- madest) thou madest me. Both sets of pronouns are used as emphatic repetitions of
B
10 ETYMOLOey.
the subject, but the repetition of the object is generally confined to the second set. It would seem in fact that the first set may originally have been subjective, and the second objective forms.
3. Mi6 miye, / myself; nis niye, thou thyself; \h, iye, he himself; uqkis uqkiyepi, we ourselves, etc., are emphatic expressions which frequently occur, meaning that it concerns the person or persons alone, and not any one else.
§ 16. 1. The possessive separate pronouns are. Sing., mitawa, my or mine, nitawa, thy or thine, tawa, his ; Dual, uqkitawa, (mine and thine) ours ; Plur., uqkitawapi, our or ours, nitawapi, your or yours, tawapi, their or theirs : as, wowapi mitawa, my book ; he mitawa, that is mine.
2. The separate pronouns of the second set are also used as emphatic repetitions with these ; as, miye mitawa, (me mine) my own ; niye nitawa, thy own ; iye tawa, his own ; uqkiye uqkitawapi, our own.
Incorporated.
§ 17. The incorporated pronouns are used to denote the subject or object of an action, or the possessor of a thing.
Nominative.
§ 18. 1. The nominative pronouns, or those which denote the subject of the action, are. Sing., wa, /, ya, thou ; Dual, uq, (/ and thou) we two ; Plur. uq-pi, we, ya-pi, ye. The plur. term. ' pi ' is attached to the end of the verb.
2. a. These pronouns are most frequently used with active verbs ; as, wakaga, I make ; yakaga, thou makest ; uqkagapi, we make.
b. They are also used with a few neuter and adjective verbs. The neuter verbs are such as, ti, to dwell, wati, I dwell ; itoq^ni, to tell a lie, iwatoq^ni, I tell a lie. The adjective verbs with which ' wa' and 'ya ' are used are very few ; as, waoqsida, merciful, waoqsiwada, / am merciful; duzahai), swift, waduzahax), lam swift of foot ; ksapa, wise, yaksapa, thou art wise.
3. When the verb commences with a vowel, the ' uq ' of the dual and plural, if prefixed, becomes ' uqk ;' as, itoqsni, to tell a lie, uqkitoqsni, we two tell a lie ; au, to bring, uqkaupi, we bring.
4. When the prepositions ' ki,' to, and ' ki6i,' for, occur in verbs, instead of ' waki ' and ' yaki,' we have ' we ' and ' ye ' (§ 7. 2.) ; as, kidaga, to make to one, wedaga, I make to; ki(ii6aga, to make for, ye6i6aga, thou makest for, ye6i6agapi, you make for one. Kiksuya, to remember, also follows this rule ; as, weksuya, I remember.
5. In verbs commencing with 'yu ' and 'ya,' the first and second persons plural are formed by changing the 'y' into 'md' and 'd;' as, ynwa^te, to make good, mAny/Sihie, I make good, duwaste, thou makest good, duwastepi, you make good ; yawa, to read, mdawa, / read, dawa, thou readest. In like manner we have iyotaqka, to sit down, imdotaqka, / sit down, idotaqka, thou sittest down.
6. The third person of verbs and verbal adjectives has no incorporated pro- noun.
PRONOUNS. 11
Objective.
§ 19. 1. The objective pronouns, or those which properly denote the object of the action, are, Sing., ma, me, ni, thee ; Plur., uq-pi, us, and ni-pi, you.
2. a. These pronouns are used with active verbs to denote the object of the action ; as, kaga, he made, makaga, he made me, ni6agapi, he made you.
b. They are also used with neuter verbs and adjectives; as, jazai), to be sick, mayazaq, / am sick; waste, good, mawaste, / am good. The English idiom requires that we should here render these pronouns by the nominative case, although it would seem that in the mind of the Dakotas, the verb or adjective is used imper- sonally, and governs the pronoun in the objective.
c. They are also incorporated into nouns, where in English the substantive verb would be used as a copula ; as, wi6asta, man, wima6a6ta, / am a man.
3. In the same cases where 'we' and 'ye ' subjective are used (see § 18. 4.), the objective pronouns have the forms ' mi ' and ' ni,' instead of ' maki ' and nidi ;' as, ki6aga, he makes to one, mi6aga, he makes to me, nidaga, he makes to thee, nidagapi, he makes to you.
4. There is no objective pronoun of the third person singular ; but ' wi6a ' (perhaps originally man) is used as an objective pronoun of the third person plural; as, wa^tedaka, to love any one, wastewi6adaka, he loves them; widayazaq, they are sick. When followed by a vowel, the * a ' final is dropped ; as, e6awi6uqkidor)pi, we do to them.
§ 20. Instead of ' wa,' /, and ' ni,' thee, coming together in a word, the syllable ' 6i ' is used to express them both ; as, wastedaka, to love, wastedidaka, / love thee. The plural of the object is denoted by adding the term ' pi ;' as, wastedidakapi, / love you. The only essential difference between ' di ' and the ' ur) ' of the dual and plural is, that in the former the first person is in the nominative and the second in the objective case, while in the latter both persons are in the same case.
The place of the nominative and objective pronouns in the verb, adjective, or noun, into which they are incorporated, will be explained when treating of those parts of speech.
Posse ssive.
§ 21. a. The possessive pronouns are. Sing., mi or ma, my, ni, thy ; Dual, uq, (my and thy) our ; Plur., uq-pi, our, ni-pi, your.
b. These pronouns are prefixed to nouns which signify the different parts of oneself, as also one's words and actions, but they are not used alone to express the idea of property in general; as, mitaqdaq, my body ; minagi, my soul; mitawadiq, my mind; mitezi, my stomach; misiha, my foot ; midaqte, my heart; miista, my eye ; miisto, my arm ; mioie, my words,; miohaq, my actions ; uqtaqdaq, our two bodies; uqtaqdaqpi, our bodies; nitaqdaqpi, your bodies; uqnagipi, our souls; uqdaqtepi, our hearts.
c. In those parts of the body which exhibit no independent action, the pronoun of the first person takes the form ' ma ;' as, mapa, my head ; manoge, my ears ; mapoge, my nose ; mawe, my blood, etc.
§ 22. 1. The pronouns of the first and second persons prefixed to nouns signify- ing relationship, arc, Sing., mi, my, ni, thy ; Dual, uqki, (my and thy) our ; Plur.,
12
ETYMOLOGY.
uqki-pi, our, ni-pi, yowr: as, mi6ii)6a, my child ; nidek^i, thy uncle; nisuijka, thy younger brother ; uqkidiqdapi, our children.
2. a. Nouns signifying relationship take as the pronouns of the third person, the suffix ' ku,' with its plural ' kupi ;' as, suqka, the younger brother of a man, suqkaku, his younger brother ; taqka, the younger sister of a woman, taqkaku, her younger sister ; hihna, husband, hihnaku, her husband ; ate, father, atkuku, his or her father.
b. But after the vowel ' i,' either pure or nasalized, the suffix is either ' tku ' or ' 6u ;' as, dek^i, uncle, deksitku, his or her uncle ; taqk^i, the younger sister of a man, taijksitku, his younger sister ; <Sir)ksi, son, diqhiqtku, his or her son ; tawiq, a wife, tawidu, his wife ; 6iqye, the elder brother of a man, 6ii)6u, his elder brother.
Perhaps the origin of the ' t ' in ' tku ' may be found in the ' ta ' of the third person used to denote property. See the next section.
§ 23. 1. ' Mita,' 'nita,' and ' ta,' singular ; ' uqkita,' dual ; and ' uqkita-pi,' ' nita- pi ' and ' ta-pi,' plural, are used to express property in things : as, mitaoqspe, my axe ; nita^uqke, thy dog; they say also mitahoksidaq, my boy. These pronouns are also used with koda, a particular friend, as, mitakoda, my friend, nitakoda, thy friend, takodaku, his friend ; and with ki6uwa, comrade, as, nitakiduwa, thy comrade, etc.
2. a. ' Mita,' ' nita,' and ' ta,' when prefixed to nouns commencing with ' o ' or ' i,' drop the ' a ;' as, owiqi;a, a bed, mitowiq^e, my bed ; ipahiq, a pillow, nitipahig, thy pillow ; itazipa, a bow, tinazipe, his bow.
b. When these possessive pronouns are prefixed to abstract nouns which com- mence with ' wo,' both the ' a ' of the pronoun, and ' w ' of the noun, are dropped ; as, wowaste, goodness, mitowa^te, my goodness ; woksape, wisdom, nitoksape, thy wisdom ; wowaoq^ida, mercy, towaoq^ida, his mercy.
c. But when the noun commences with ' a,' the ' a ' of the pronoun is usually retained ; as, aki6ita, a soldier, mitaaki6ita, my soldier.
3. ' Wi6a ' and ' wi6i ' are sometimes prefixed to nouns, making what may be regarded as a possessive of the third person plural; as, wi6ahuqku, their mother ; wi6iatkuku, their father.
TABLE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
|
Separate Pronouns. |
|||
|
Nominative. |
Objective. |
Possessive. |
|
|
Sing. 3. 2. 1. |
is ; iye ni^ ; niye mi6 ; miye |
iye niye miye |
tawa nitawa mitawa |
|
Dual 1. |
uqki6 ; uqkiye |
uqkitawa |
|
|
Plur. 3. 2. 1. |
i^ -pi; iyepi nik -pi ; niyepi uqki^„-pi; uqkiyepi |
iyepi niyepi uqkiyepi |
tawapi nitawapi uqkitawapi |
PRONOUNS.
13
|
Incorporated Pronouns. |
|||||
|
Nominative. |
Objective. |
Possessive. |
|||
|
Sing. 3. |
-ku, -tku ; |
ta- |
|||
|
2. ya; |
ye |
ni ; ni |
ni-; |
ni-; |
nita- |
|
1. wa; |
we |
ma ; mi |
mi-; |
ma-; |
mita- |
|
Dual 1. ug ; |
uqki |
uq-; |
uqki- ; |
uqkita- |
|
|
Plur. 3. |
wi6a |
-kupi, -tkupi ; |
ta-pi |
||
|
2. ya-pi ; |
ye-pi |
ni-pi ; ni-pi |
ni-pi ; |
ni-pi ; |
nita-pi |
|
1. ug-pi; |
ugki-pi |
uq-pi ; uqki-pi |
uq-pi ; |
uqki-pi ; |
uqkita-pi |
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 24. The reflexive pronouns are used when the agent and patient are the same person ; as, wastei^idaka, he loves himself, wasteni(5idaka, thou lovest thyself, waste- mi^idaka, / love myself.
The forms of these pronouns are as follows : —
Sing.
3. i(Ji 2. ni^i 1. mi^i
Dual.
uqki(Ji
Plur.
i(Ji-pi
ni(^i-pi
uqki<ii-pi.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 25. 1. The relative pronouns are tuwe, who, and taku, what ; tuwe ka^ta and tuwe kake^, whosoever or any one ; taku ka^ta and taku kake^, whatsoever or any thing.
2. Tuwe and taku are sometimes used independently in the manner of nouns : as, tuwe u, some one comes ; taku yamni waqmdaka, / see three things.
3. They are also used with ' dag ' suffixed and ' sni ' following : as, tuwedaq ^ni, no one ; takudaq mduhe sni, / have not any thing ; tuktedaq uq sni, it is nowhere ; uqmana e6oqpi 6ni, neither did it.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 26. These are tuwe, who? with its plural tuwepi; taku, what? which is used with the plural signification, both with and without the termination 'pi;' tukte, which ? tukten, where ? tuwe tawa, whose ? tona, tonaka, and tonake6a, how
many
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 27. 1. These are de, this, and he, that, with their plurals dena, these, and hena, those ; also, ka, that, and kana, those or so many. From these are formed denaka
14 ETYMOLOGY.
and denake6a, these many ; henaka and henake6a, those many ; and kanaka and kanake6a, so many as those.
2. ' Dai) ' or ' na ' is sometimes suffixed with a restrictive signification ; as, dena, these, denana, only these ; hena, those, henana, only so many.
§ 28. 1. Also '!kon' partakes of the nature of a demonstrative pronoun when it refers to some person or thing mentioned before; as, widasta koq, that man.
2. When ' a ' or ' aq ' of the preceding word is changed into ' e,' ' koq ' becomes '6ik:oq ' (§ 7. 1.) ; as, tuwe waqmdake 6ik:oq, that person whom I saw, or the person I saw.
ARTICLES.
§ 29. There are properly speaking only two articles, the definite and indefinite.
Definite Article.
§ 30. 1. The definite article is kiq, the ; as, wida^ta kiq, the man, maka kiq, the earth.
2. The definite article, when it occurs after the vowel ' e ' which has taken the place of ' a ' or ' aq,' takes the form ' 6iq ' (§ 7. 1.) ; as, wi6a6ta kide 6iq, the had man.
3. In conversation, 'kiq,' after nouns, is sometimes contracted into 'g,' which is suffixed to the noun ; as, oyateg, for oyate kiq, the people ; makag, for maka kiq, the earth.
§ 31. The demonstrative ' ^oq ' approaches very nearly to the nature of the article, and may often be rendered accordingly. See § 28.
Indefinite Article.
§ 32. The indefinite article is 'waq,' a or an, probably a contraction of the numeral waq;^i, one ; as, widasta waq, a man.
CHAPTER II.
VERBS. FORMS OF VERBS.
Verbal Roots.
§ 33. The Dakota language contains many verbal roots, which are used as verbs only with certain causative prefixes, and which form participles by means of certain additions. The following is a hst of the more common verbal roots : —
baza, smooth gata, spread hna., fall off
ga, open out guka, spread out hnayaq, deceive
gaq, open out hiqta, brush off huhuza, shake
gapa, open oui hmuq, twist h<Ja, open out, expand
VERBS.
15
h6i, crumble, gap idata, scratch lide6a, tear^ smash hdoka, make a hole hepa, exhaust hi6a, arouse Yipa., fall down hpu, crumble off htaka, catch, grip law, peel
huga, jam, smash kawa, open k6a, untangle kig6a, scrape off kiqza, creak koqta, notch ksa, separate ksa, bend k^i^a, double up ktai), bend mdaza, spread open mda^a, burst out
inda,Jine, pulverize
mna, rip
mni, spread out
pota, wear out
psaka, break in two
psuq, spill
psuq, dislocate
pta, cut out, pare off
ptaqyar), turn over
ptu^a, crack, split
sba, ravel
sbu, dangle
sde6a, split
ski6a, press
skita, draw tight
smiq, scrape off
sna, ring
sota, clear off, whitish
saka, press down
6ka, tie
6ki6a, press
^na, miss
Verbs formed by Prefixes.
^pa, break off
6pi, joic^ 0^
&pu, fall off
6u^a, jnasA
taka, touch, make fast
taq, «)e//, <omcA
tepa, wear off
tida, scrape
tipa, contract
titaq, pw/Z
tkuga, 6reaAr q^
tpi, cracA;
tpu, crumble, fall off
we^SL, fracture
w'n)ia., bend down
zamni, open out
ia, stir
iaf a, rub out, efface
iiT), stiff
iipa, pinch
iuq, root out
inixx, come to pieces.
§ 34. The syllables ' ba,' ' bo,' ' ka,' ' na,' ' pa,' ' ya,' and • yu,' are prefixed to verbal roots, adjectives, and some neuter verbs, making of them active transitive verbs, and usually indicating the mode and instrument of the action.
a. The syllable ' ba ' prefixed shows that the action is done by cutting or sawing, and that a knife or saw is the instrument.
6. The prefix ' bo ' signifies that the action is done by shooting with a gun or arrow, by punching with a stick, or by any instrument thrown endwise. It also expresses the action of rain and hail; and is used in reference to blowing with the mouth, as, bosni, to blow out.
c. The prefix ' ka' denotes that the action is done by striking, as with an axe or club, or by shaving. It is also used to denote the effects of wind and of running water.
d. The prefix ' na ' generally signifies that the action is done with the foot or by pressure. It is also used to express the involuntary action of things, as the bursting of a gun, the warping of a board and cracking of timber, and the effects of freezing, boiling, etc.
e. The prefix ' pa ' shows that the action is done by pushing or rubbing with the hand.
f. The prefiix ' ya ' signifies that the action is performed with the mouth.
g. The prefix ' yxi ' may be regarded as simply causative or effective. It has an
16 ETYMOLOGY.
indefinite signification, and is commonly used without any reference to the manner in which the action is performed.
Usually the signification of the verbal roots is the same with all the prefixes, as they only have respect to the manner and instrument of the action : as, baksa, to cut in two with a knife, as a stick ; boksa, to shoot off ; kaksa, to cut off with an axe ; naksa, to break off with the foot ; paksa, to break off with the hand ; yaksa, to bite off ; yuksa, to break off. But the verbal root ika, appears to undergo a change of meaning ; as, kaska, to tie, yu^ka, to untie.
§ 35. These prefixes are also used with neuter verbs, giving to them an active signification ; as, naiiq, to stand, yunaiiq, to raise up, cause to stand ; 6eya, to cry, nadeya, to make cry by kicking.
§ 36. We also have verbs formed from adjectives by the use of such of these prefixes as the meaning of the adjectives will admit of; as, wa^te, good, yuwa^te, to make good ; te6a, new, yuteda, to make new ; 6i6a, had, ya^i6a, to speak evil of.
Compound Verbs. '
§ 37. There are several classes of verbs which are compounded of two verbs.
1. ' Kiya ' and ' ya ' or ' yaq,' when used with other verbs, impart to them a causative signification and are usually joined with them in the same word; as, na^iq, he stands, naiiqkiya, he causes to stand. The first verb is sometimes con- tracted (see § 11) ; as, waqyaka, he sees, waqyagkiya, he causes to see.
2. In the above instances the first verb has the force of an infinitive or present participle. But sometimes the first as well as the second has the force of an independent finite verb ; as, hdiwarjka, he comes horns and sleeps ; hiqa^iq, he comes and stands. These may be termed double verbs.
§ 38. To verbs in Dakota belong conjugation, form, person, number, mood, and tense.
Conjugation.
§ 39. Dakota verbs are comprehended in three conjugations, distinguished by the form of the pronouns in the first and second persons singular which denote the agent.
a. In the Jirst conjugation the nominative singular pronouns are ' wa ' or ' we,' and ' ya ' or ' ye.'
b. The second conjugation embraces verbs in ' }ai,' ' ya,' and ' yo,' which form the first and second persons singular by changing the ' y ' into ' md ' and ' d.'
c. Neuter and adjective verbs form the third conjugation, known by taking what are more properly the objective pronouns, 'ma' and 'ni.'
Form.
§ 40. Dakota verbs exhibit certain varieties of form, which indicate corresponding variations of meaning.
1. Most Dakota verbs may assume a frequentative form, that is, a form which conveys the idea of frequency of action. It consists in doubling a syllable, generally the last ; as, baksa, to cut off with a knife, baksaksa, to cut off in several places. This form is conjugated in all respects just as the verb is before reduplication.
VERBS. 17
2. The so-called absolute form of active verbs is made by prefixing ' vpa,' and is conjugated in the same manner as the primitive verb, except that it cannot take an objective noun or pronoun. The ' wa ' appears to be equivalent to the Enghsh something : as, manoq, to steal, wamanor), to steal something; taspaqtaqka mawanor), (apple I-stole) I stole an apple, wamawanoq, / stole something, i. e. / committed a theft.
3. When the agent acts on himself, the verb is put in the reflexive form. The reflexive is formed in two ways : first, by incorporating the reflexive pronouns, i^i, ni(Ji, mic^i, and ui]ki(^i ; as, wastei(^idaka, he loves himself. Secondly, verbs in ' yu,' ' ya, and ' yo,' that make the possessive by changing ' y ' into ' hd,' prefix to this form ' i ;' as, yu^ai^a, to wash any thing ; hdui;ai;a, to wash one's own, as one's clothes ; ihdui;ai;a, to wash oneself.
4. When the agent acts on his own, i. e. something belonging to himself, the verb assumes the possessive form. This is made in two ways : first, by prefixing or inserting the possessive pronoun ' ki ' (and in some cases ' k ' alone) ; as, wastedaka, to love any thing ; 6ir)6a wa^tekidaka, he loves his child. Secondly, in verbs in ' yu,' ' ya,' and ' yo^ the possessive form is made by changing ' y ' into ' hd ;' as, yuha, to have or possess any thing ; hduha, to have one''s own; ^uktaqka wahduha, / have my own horse.
5. Another form of verbs is made by prefixing or inserting prepositions meaning to and for. This may be called the dative form.
a. When the action is done to another, the preposition ' ki ' is prefixed or inserted ; as, kaga, to make any thing ; ki6aga, to make to one ; wowapi ki6aga, (writing to-him-he-made) he wrote him a letter. This form is also used when the action is done on something that belongs to another ; as, 6uqka kikte, (dog to-him-he- killed) he killed his dog.
b. When the thing is done for another, ' ki6i ' is used ; as, wowapi ki6i6aga, (writing for-him-he-made^ he wrote a letter for him. In the plural, this sometimes has a reciprocal force ; as, wowapi ki6i6agapi, they wrote letters to each other.
6. In some verbs ' ki ' prefixed conveys the idea that the action takes effect on the middle of the object ; as, baksa, to cut in two with a knife, as a stick ; kibaksa, to cut in two in the middle.
Person,
§ 41. Dakota verbs have three persons, the first, second, and third. The third person is represented by the verb in its simple form, and the second and first persons by the addition of the personal pronouns.
Number.
§ 42. Dakota verbs have three numbers, the singular, dual, and plural.
1. The dual number is only of the first person. It includes the person speaking and the one spoken to, and is in form the same as the first person plural, but without the termination 'pi;' as, waeteur)daka, we <mjo love him; mauijni, i«e two walk.
18 ETYMOLOGY.
2. The plural is formed by suffixing 'pi;' as, wasteuqdakapi, we love him; manipi, they walk,
3. There are some verbs of motion which form what may be called a collective plural, denoting that the action is performed by two or more acting together or in a body. This is made by prefixing ' a ' or ' e ;' as, u, to come, au, they come ; ya, to go, aya, they go ; naiiq, to stand, ena^iq, they stand. These have also thie ordinary plm-al ; as, upi, yapi, na^iqpi.
Mood.
§ 43. There are three moods belonging to Dakota verbs : the indicative, impera- tive, and infinitive.
1. The indicative is the common form of the verb; as, 6eya, he cries; 6eyapi, they cry.
2. a. The imperative singular is formed from the third person singular indicative and the syllables ' wo ' and ' ye ;' as, 6eya wo, 6eya ye, cry thou. Instead of ' ye,' the Mdewakaqtoqwai) has ' we,' and the Titoqwaq ' le.'
b. The imperative plural is formed by the syllables ' po,' ' pe,' ' m,' and ' miye ;' as, 6eya po, 6eya pe, deyam, and 6eya miye. It has been suggested that ' po ' is formed by an amalgamation of ' pi,' the common plural ending, and ' wo ' the sign of the imperative singular. In like manner ' pi ' and ' ye ' may be combined to make ' pe.' The combination of ' miye ' is not so apparent.
The forms ' wo ' and ' po ' are used only by men ; and ' we,' ' ye,' ' pe,' and ' miye ' by women, though not exclusively. From observing this general rule, we formerly supposed that sex was indicated by them ; but lately we have been led to regard ' wo ' and ' po ' as used in commanding, and ' we,' ' ye,' ' pe,' and ' miye,' in entrcatinff. Although it would be out of character for women to use the former, men may and often do use the latter.
When ' po,' ' pe,' or ' miye ' ■ is used it takes the place of the plural ending ' pi ;' as, ceya po, ceya miye, cry ye. But vrith the- negative adverb ' ^ni,' the ' pi ' is retained ; as, (feyapi ^ni po, do not cry.
Sometimes in giving a command the ' wo ' and ' ye,' signs of the imperative, are not expressed. The plural endings are less frequently omitted.
3. The infijiitive is commonly the same as the ground form of the verb, or third person singular indicative. When two verbs come together, the first one is usually to be regarded as the infinitive mood or present participle ; and is contracted if capable of contraction (§ 11); as, wagyaka, to see any thing, waqyag mde kta, {to-sec it I-go will) I will go to see it ; nahoq wauq, {hearing I-ani) I am hearing, or / hear.
What in other languages are called conditional and subjunctive moods may be formed by using the indicative with the conjunctions u^kaijs, kijjhai) or ciijhaij, tuka, esta or iia,, and kes, which come after the verb ; as, ceya uijkaijs, if he had cried ; ceye ciijhar), if he cry ; deye kta tuka, lie would cry, but he does not ; wahi uqkaq^ waka^ke kta tuka, if I had come, I would have bound him.
Tense.
§ 44. Dakota verbs have two tenses, the aorist or indefinite, and i\\Q future.
1. The aorist includes the present and imperfect past. It has commonly no
VERBS. 19
particular sign. Whether the action is past or now being done must be determined by circumstances, or by the adverbs used.
2. The sign of the future tense is ' kta ' placed after the verb. It is often changed into ' kte ;' for the reason of which, see § 6. 1. 6.
What answers to a perfect past is sometimes formed by using ' ^oi) ' or ' ci^oi),' and sometimes by the article ' kii) ' or ' cii) ;' as, taku nawahoi) Ijcor), what I heard.
Participles.
§ 45. 1. The addition of ' haq ' to the third person singular of some verbs makes an active participle; as, ia, to speak, iahai), speaking ; na^iq, to stand, naiiqhaq, standing ; mani, to walk, manihaq, walking. The verbs that admit of this forma- tion do not appear to be numerous.
2. The third person singular of the verb when preceding another verb, has often the force of an active participle; as, natoq wauq,/ am hearing. When capable of contraction it is in this case contracted ; as, waqyaka, to see, waqyag nawaziq, / stand seeing.
§ 46. 1. The verb in the plural impersonal form, has in many instances the force o{ a passive participle ; as, makaskapi wauq, {me-thexj-bound I-am) I am bound.
2. Passive participles are also formed from the verbal roots (§ 33) by adding ' hag ' and ' wahaq ;' as, ksa, separate, ksahaq and ksawahai), broken in two, as a stick. In some cases only one of these forms is in use ; but generally both occur, without however, so far as we have perceived, any difference in the meaning.
A few of the verbal roots are used as adjectives ; as, mdu, fine ; but they also take the participial endings, as, mduwahaq, crumbled fine.
CONJUGATION I. .
§ 47. Those which are embraced in the first conjugation are mostly active verbs, and take the subjective pronouns 'ya' or 'ye,' and ' wa' or 'we,' in the second and first persons singular.
First Variett.
§ 48. The first variety of the first conjugation is distinguished by prefixing or inserting ' ya ' and ' wa,' pronouns of the second and first persons singular.
A. PronouTis Prefixed..
Kaska, to tie or bind any thing.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
AORIST TENSE.
Sir^. Dual. Plnr.
3. ka^ka, he hinds or he bound. ka^kapi, they bind.
2. yakdska, thou bindest. yakii^kapi, ye bind.
1. wakdika, / bind. uijkiiSka, we two bind. ui)kA4kapi, we bind.
20
ETYMOLOGY.
FUTURE TENSE.
3. ka^ke kta, he will hind.
2. yak4ike kta, thou wilt hind.
1. waka^ke kta, I will hind. ugka^ke kta, we two will hind.
Sing. 2. kaska wo, ye, or we, bind thou.
Sing. 3. man6i), he steals or stole. 2. may^noi), thou stealest. 1. maw4noi), I steal.
3. manoi) kta, he will steal.
2. maydnop kta, thou wilt steal.
1. mawdnoq kta, / will steal.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
PARTICIPLE.
ka^k^hai), hound.
B. Pronouns Inserted.
Manoi), to steal any thing. INDICATIVE MOOD.
AOBIST TENSE.
Dual. mauqnoi), we two steal.
I FUTURE TENSE.
ka^kipi kta, they will hind. yakddkapi kta, ye will hind. ugkdskapi kta, we will hind.
Plur.
kaskd po, pe, or miye, hind ye.
Plur. manoqpi, they steal. maydnogpi, ye steal. mauijnoijpi, we steal.
manoijpi kta, they will steal.
may&nogpi kta, ye will steal.
mauflnoi) kta, we two will steal. mauijnocpi kta, we will steal.
Sing. 2. nian6i) wo, ye, or we, steal thou.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Plur. man^Q po, pe, or miye, steal ye.
The verb yuta, to eat any thing, may be regarded as coming under the first variety of this conjugation. The ' yu ' is dropped when the pronouns are assumed ; as, yiita, he eats, yata, thmi eatest, wata, I eat.
Second Variety.
§ 49. The second variety of the first conjugation is distinguished by the use of 'ye' and 'we,' instead of 'yaki' and 'waki' (§ 18. 4.), in the second and first persons singular.
A. Pronouns Prefixed.
Kiksuya, to rememher any thing. INDICATIVE MOOD.
Sing. 3. kiksuya, he remembers. 2. y6ksuya, thou rememberest. 1. weksuya, / remember.
AORIST TENSE.
Dual.
uflMksuya, we two remember.
Plur. kiksuyapi, they rememher. y^ksuyapi, ye remember. u^kiksuyapi, we remember.
Siriff. 2. kiksuya wo, ye, or we, retnemher thou.
VERBS.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
21
Plur.
kiksuya po, pe, or miye, remember ye.
Future Tense. — It is deemed unnecessary to give any further examples of the future tense, as those which have gone before fully illustrate the manner of its formation. -
B. Pronouns Inserted.
Scakicor), to do any thing to another.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
|
AORIST TENSK. |
|||
|
Sing. |
Dual. |
Plur. |
|
|
3. 2. 1. |
ecdkicoig, he does to one. ecdyecoq, thou doest to. ecAwecoi), / do to. |
ecaui)kic'ofl, we two do to. |
ecAkidoijpi, they do to. ec&yecoijpi, ye do to. ecduijkicoqpi, we do to. |
Sing.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
2. ed^kico^ wo, ye, or we, do thou it to one.
Plur.
ed4kicoi) po, pe, or miye, do ye it to one.
CONJUGATION II.
§ 50. Verbs in ' yu,' ' ya,' and ' yo,' which change ' y ' into ' d ' for the second person, and into ' md ' for the first person singular, belong to this conjugation. They are generally active in their signification.
First Variety.
A. Verbs in 'yu.'
Yustai), to finish or complete any thing.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
AOBIST TENSE.
Sing. 3. yu^tifl, he finishes or finished. 2. du^t4q, thou dost finish. 1. mdu^tdfl, I finish.
Sing. yuitdi) wo, etc., finish thou.
Dual.
uq^tai), we two finish.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Plur. yait&jj-pi, they finish. du^td;)pi, ye finish. iii)itaj)Tpi, we finish.
Plur. jait&i) po, etc., finish ye.
First person plural. — Verbs in ' yu ' generally form the first person plural and dual by dropping the ' yu,' as in the example ; but occasionally a speaker retains it and prefixes the pronoun, as, uijyu^taqpi for ufl^tagpi.
22
Sinff. 3. yaksA, he bites in two. 2. daksa, thou bitest in two. 1. mdaksd, J bite in two.
Sing. yaks4 wo, etc., bite thou in two.
Sing. 3. iy6tai)ka, he sits down. 2. idotaijka, thou sittest down. 1. imdotaqka, I sit down.
Sing. iydtaqka wo, etc., sit thou down.
ETYMOLOGY.
JB. Verbs in 'ya.'
Yaksa, to bite any thing in two. INDICATIVE MOOD.
AOBIST TENSE.
Dual.
uijyiksa, we two bite in two. IMPERATIVE MOOD.
C. Verbs in 'yo.'
lyotarika, to sit down.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
AORIST TENSE.
Dual.
ui)kiyotai)ka, we two sit down. IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Second Variety.
Plur. yaksipi, the^ bite in two. daksApi, you bite in two. uijydksapi, we bite in two.
Plur.
yaks4 po, etc., bite ye in two.
Plur. iy6tagkapi, they sit down. id6ta;)kapi, you sit down. lujkiyotaiikapi, we sit down.
Plur. iy6taqka po, etc., sit ye down.
§ 51. The second variety of the second conjugation embraces such verbs as belong to the same class but are irregular or defective.
Irregular Formations, a. Hiyu, to come or start to come. INDICATIVE MOOD.
|
AOBIST TENSE. |
||
|
Sing. |
Dual. |
Plur. |
|
3. hiyfi, he comes. 2. Hdu, thou comest. \. hibu, I come. |
u^hiyu, we two come. |
hiyfipi, they come. hidupi, you come. u^hiynpi, we come. |
|
Sing. |
IMPERATIVE MOOD. |
t Plur. |
|
hiyfl wo, etc., come thou. |
hiyii po, etc., come ye. |
VERBS.
23
|
b. Yukai), to be or there |
is. |
||
|
Sing. |
Dual. |
Plur. |
|
|
3. yukafl, there is some. 2. 1. |
lugkdfl, we two are. |
yuk4i)pi, they are dukAqpi, you are. uijkaijpi, we are. |
The verb ' yukaq ' in the singular is applied to things and not to pereons except as considered col- lectively.
c. Plur. YakOQpi, they are.
Sing.
3.
2. dak4noq, thou art.
1.
Dual.
uijyAkori, we two are.
Plur. yakoijpi, they are. dak^noi^pi, you are. ufly^koijpi, we are.
These two last verbs, it will be observed, are defective. Kiyukai), formed from yukai), is used in the sense of to make room for one, and is of the first conjugation.
VERBS WITH OBJECTIVE PKONOUNS.
§ 52. 1. The objective pronoun occupies the same place in the verb as the subjective ; as, kaska, he hinds, makaska, he hinds me ; manoq, he steals, maninoq, he steals thee.
2. When the same verb contains both a subjective and an objective pronoun, the objective is placed first ; as, mayakaska, thou hindest me, mawidayanoq, thou stealest them. An exception is formed by the pronoun of the first person plural, which is always placed before the pronoun of the second person, whether subjective or objective ; as, ur)ni(5askapi, we hind you.
|
EASKA, to tie or bind. |
||||||
|
him, her, it. |
thee. |
me. |
them. |
you. |
MS. |
|
|
! |
Sing. 3. kaski 2. yak4ska 1. wakd^ka Dual. uqkd^ka Plur. 3. ka^kapi 2. yak44kapi 1. ui)k44kapi |
nicaika cicaska nicAskapi uijnicaskapi |
makaska mayakaska makd^kapi may^kaskapi |
wic4ka^ka wic4yakaska wicawakaska widuijkaska wid^kaskapi wicdyaka^kapi wicu^ka^kapi |
nid^^kapi cidaskapi nicaskapi uijnidaskapi |
uijka^kapi u^jydkaskapi uijkciskapi uriy&kaskapi |
|
^ |
Sing, kaska wo, etc. Plur. ka^ka po, etc. |
mak4^ka wo makaska po |
wid^kaska wo wic4ka^ka po |
ur|k4ska po uijkA^ka po |
Impersonal Forms.
§ 53. Active verbs are frequently used impersonally in the plural number, and take the objective pronouns to indicate the person or persons acted upon, in which
24 ETYMOLOGY.
case they may be commonly translated by the English passive ; as, kaskapi, (they- bound-him) he is bound ; ni6askapi, (they-bound-thee) thou art bound ; maka^kapi, (they-bound-me) I am bound ; wi6akaskapi, {they-bound-them) they are bound.
Neuter and Adjective Verbs.
§ 54. Neuter and adjective verbs seem likevfise to be used impersonally, and are varied by means of the same pronouns ; as, ta (it-dies-him) he dies, nita (it-dies-thee) thou diest, mata, / die, tapi, they die, etc.; waste {good) he is good, niwa^te (thee-good) thou art good, etc.
The termination ' pi ' in tapi, nitapi, etc., does not appear to be used to mark plurality in the subjective pronoun understood, but in the objective pronoun either expressed or understood ; and this is corroborated by the form wicata, (it-dies-them) they die, where the subject understood is evidently singular.
It appears practically convenient to include these verbs, and a few others which are varied in a similar manner, in one group, to which we will give the name of third conjugation.
CONJUGATION III.
§ 55. This conjugation is distinguished by the pronouns ' ni ' in the second, and ' ma ' in the first person singular. Those verbs included under the Jirst variety take these pronouns in their full form. The second variety embraces those in which the pronouns appear in a fragmentary state, and are irregular in their conjugation.
First V ari ety.
§ 56. To this variety belong neuter and adjective verbs. The proper adjective verbs always prefix the pronouns ; but while some neuter verbs prefix, others insert them.
A. Pronouns Prefixed.
Ta, to die or he dead.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
AOEIST TENSE.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. ta, he is dead. t'lpi, they are dead.
2. nita, thou art dead. nitdpi, you are dead.
1. mata, / atn dead. ur)t4» we two are dead. uqtap') 'we are dead.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sinij. Plur.
2. ta wo, etc., die thou. t* po, etc., die ye.
VERBS.
25
Sing. 3. wa^te, he is good. 2. niwSite, thou art good. 1. Taa,vikii», I am good.
Waste, 5^0015? or to he good. Dual.
Sing.
3. asni, he is well.
2. anisni, thou art well.
1. amdsni, I am well.
Sing. asni wo, etc., be thou well.
uqwd^te, we two are good.
B. Pronouns Inserted.
Asni, to get well or be well, recover from sickness.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
AORIST TENSE.
Dual.
Plur. waitepi, they are good. niwastepi, you are good. uijwi^tepi, we are good.
uqkasni, we tioo are well. IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Second Variety.
Plur.
asnipi, they are well. anisnipi, you are well. uijkAsnipi, we are well.
Plur. asni po, etc., be ye well.
§ 57. Verbs in this variety have only ' n ' and ' m,' fragments of the pronouns ' ni ' and ' ma,' in the second and first persons singular. These appear to be mostly active transitive verbs.
A. Pronouns Prefixed.
1. The fragmentary pronouns, ' n ' and ' m,' are prefixed to the entire verb.
Ul), to use any thing, as a tool, etc. INDICATIVE MOOD.
AORIST TENSE.
Dual.
Sing. 3. uq, he uses. 2. nuq, thou usest. 1. mui), I use.
urikdi), we two use.
Plur. (115 pi, they use. ntiqpi, ye use. uqkuqpi, we use.
In this and the following examples only the Indicative Aorist is given, the formation of the remaining parts having been already suflBciently exhibited.
Uflpa and caijnuijpa, to smoke a pipe, are conjugated like ui), to use.
The reflexive form of verbs which in the third person singular commences with ' ihd ' (see § 40. 3.) is also conjugated like ' ui) ;' as, ihdaska, to hind oneself; nihdSska, thou hindest thyself; mihdaska, / bind myself.
2. The prefixed ' n ' and ' m ' take the place of the initial ' y.'
a. Yaqka, to be. Dual,
Sing. 3. yatjkk, he is. 2. naijka, thou art, 1. mai)k4, / am.
ui)yai)ka, we two are, »
Plur.
yai)kapi, they are, nai)k4pi, ye are, uqydijkapi, we are.
26
3. yiijka, he weaves. 2. nAijka, thou weavest. 1. mnaqka, / weave.
ETYMOLOGY.
4. Vaqka, to weave, as snow-shoes.
y4r|kapi, tAey weave. nAqkapi, yoM weave. ui)y4r)kapi, we weave.
uqy&qka, we <i»o weave. Y&i)ka, to weave, diifers in coujugation from ya;}kd, to he, only in the first person singular.
£. Pronouns Inserted. 3. ' N ' and ' m ' take the place of ' w.'
a. O'wiQza, to make a bed of or use for a bed. Dual.
Sing.
3. owlqza, he uses for a bed. 2. oniijia, thou usest for a bed, 1. omii)za, / use for a bed.
Sing. 3. iwAriga, he inquires of. 2. inuijga, thou inquirest of. 1. imuQga, / inquire of.
Plur.
owiijiapi, they use for a bed. oniijzapi, you use for a bed. uqk6wii)ia, we two use for a bed. ui)k6wii)iapi, we use for a bed.
h. I'wax)ga, to inquire of one. Dual.
Plur.
iwaqgapi, they inquire of. inurigapi, you inquire of. ui)kiwaflga, we two inquire of. uijkiwaijgapi, we inquire of.
This second example differs from the. first in the change of vowels, ' u ' taking the place of ' a.' W&qka and iwai)ka, to lie dovm, go to bed, are conjugated like iwaijga.
4. ' N ' and ' m ' inserted with an ' a ' preceding.
"EiQOX), to do any thing.
Sing. 3. ec6i), he does. 2. ecdnoi), thou doest. 1. ecimoq, I do.
Dual.
ec6r)ku, we two do, H6cofl, k6c'oq, and tokoij are conjugated like ecoi).
C. Pronouns Suffixed. 5. The pronouns when suffixed take the forms ' ni ' and ' mi.'
a. Ecii), to think. Dual.
Plur.
eco^pi, they do.
ec4noi)pi, you do.
ec6i)kupi and ec6i)koi)pi, we do.
Sing, 3. ecii), he thinks. 2. ecdijni, thou thinkest. 1. ed4i)mi, / think. uqkecii), we two think,
Hedii), keciq, wa<!ii), and awd<?ii) are conjugated like ecii).
Plur,
eciljpi, they think, ec^aijnipi, you think. uijkeciijpi, we think.
VERBS. 27
It), to wear, as a shawl or blanket.
Sinff. Dual. Plur.
3. ii3, he wears. iqpi, they wear.
2. hiijni, thou wearest. hiijnipi, you wear.
1. hiriiri!, I wear. uijkii), we two wear. ui)kii)pi, we wear.
This example differs from the preceding in receiving a prefixed * h.'
DOUBLE VERBS.
§ 58. These are formed of two verbs compounded together (§ 37. 2 .). They usually have the pronouns proper to both verbs, though sometimes the pronouns of the last verb are omitted ; as, hdiyotaqka (hdi and iyotaqka), to come home and sit down ; wahdimdotarjka, I come home and sit down: they also say wahdiyotaqka.
CONJUGATION I. and II. Hiyotagka, to come and sit down.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. hiyotaijka, he comes, etc. hiyotaijkapi, they come, etc.
2. yahidotai)ka, thou contest, etc. yahidotarikapi, you come, etc.
1. wahimdotaijka, J come, etc. ui)hiyotai)ka, we two come, etc. uijhiyotaijkapi, we come, etc.
Hdiyotarika is conjugated like hiyotaijka. Hinaiir), hdinaiii), and kinaiii), in both parts, are of the first conjugation; as, wahinawaiiij, yahinayazii), etc.
CONJUGATION I. and III. Ir)yar)ka, to run (prob. i and yaqka).
Sing. Dual. Plur,
3. ii)yai)ka, he runs. i;)yar)kapi, they run.
2. yainaijka, thou runnest. yainaijkapi, you run.
1. -waimnaijka, /raw. ur)k.'\ijyar)\ia,, we two run. uijkiqyaijkapi, we rM«.
Hiwaqka, kiwai)ka, and hdiwaijka are conjugated like ka4ka of the first conjugation and iwaijga of the third.
IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS.
§ 59. 1. Eya, to say, with its compounds heya and keya, are conjugated irregu- larly, ' h ' and ' p ' taking the place of ' y ' in the second and first persons singular.
Eya, to say any thing.
Sing. Dual. Plur.
3. eya, he says. eyapi, they say.
2. ehi, thou say est. ehapi, you say.
1. ep4, / say or said. uijkeya, we two say, ui)k6yapi, we say.
2. Ep6a, / think, with its compounds hep6a and kep6a, are defective, being used only in the first person singular.
28
ETYMOLOGY.
|
Ann, etc. |
thee. |
me. |
them. |
you. |
us. |
||
|
S si |
Sing;. 3. baks'i |
baniksa |
bamaksa |
bawicaksa |
baniksapi |
bauijksapi |
|
|
2. bayaksa |
bamayaksa |
bawicayaksa |
bauijyaksapi |
||||
|
•t^ b- |
1. bawaksa |
baciksa |
bawicawaksa |
badiksapi |
|||
|
«3 ^ |
Dual bauriksa |
bawicui)ksa |
|||||
|
piur. 3. baksapi |
baniksapi |
bam'iksapi |
bawiciiksapi |
baniksapi |
baui)ksapi |
||
|
11 |
2. bayaksapi |
bamayaksapi |
bawicayaksapi |
baupyaksapi |
|||
|
|« |
1. baiii)ksapi |
bauijniksapi |
bawidugksapi |
baui)niksapi |
|||
|
^ |
Sing. 3. boksa |
boniksa |
bomaksa |
bowiciksa |
boniksapi |
boupksapi |
|
|
o*^ |
2. boyaksa |
bomayaksa |
bowic '.yaksa |
bouijyaksapi |
|||
|
1. bowdksa |
bociksa |
bowic4waksa |
bodiksapi |
||||
|
^ |
Dual boui)ksa |
bowiduijksa |
|||||
|
Piur. 3. boksa pi |
boniksapi |
bomdksapi |
bowidaksapi |
boniksapi |
bouijksapi |
||
|
C3 t |
2. boyaksapi |
bomayaksapi |
bowiciiyaksapi |
bouijyaksapi |
|||
|
1. bouqksapi |
bouqniksapi |
bowicuqksapi |
boujgniksapi |
||||
|
"§ |
Sing. 3. kaksi |
nic&ksa |
makaksa |
widakaksa |
nidaksapi |
uijkaksapi |
|
|
2. yak.iksa |
maySkaksa |
wicayakaksa |
uijyakaksapi |
||||
|
1. wakiksa |
cic4ksa |
wicawakaksa |
didaksapi |
||||
|
g § |
I*"'! uqkiksa |
wicuqkaksa |
|||||
|
^ |
pior. 3. kaksipi |
nicaksapi |
makaksapi |
wicakaksapi |
nidaksapi |
uijkaksapi |
|
|
•** |
C3~ |
2. yakiksapi |
mayikaksapi |
wicayakaksapi |
uijyakaksapi |
||
|
r^ ik |
1. uijkaksapi |
uijnicaksapi |
wicuijkaksapi |
ugnidaksapi |
|||
|
^ . |
Sing. 3. naksa. |
naniksa |
namiksa |
nawici'iksa |
naniksapi |
nauijksapi |
|
|
2. nayaksa |
namayaksa |
nawicayaksa |
nauqyaksapi |
||||
|
-« |
fc^ |
1. nawaksa |
naciksa |
nawidiiwaksa |
nadiksapi |
||
|
5^ |
■^^ |
"««• nauijksa |
nawidui)ksa |
||||
|
Piur. 3. naksapi |
naniksapi |
namaksapi |
nawidiiksapi |
naniksapi |
naui)ksapi |
||
|
o |
2. nayaksapi |
namayaksapi |
nawidayaksapi |
naupyaksapi |
|||
|
< |
1. nauijksapi |
nauijniksapi |
nawiduijksapi |
nauiiniksapi |
|||
|
^ |
Sing. 3. paksa |
nipdksa |
mapaksa |
wicipaksa |
nipaksapi |
uppaksapi |
|
|
-S s> |
2. yapiksa |
may a paksa |
wicayapaksa |
uijyapaksapi |
|||
|
1. wapaksa |
cipiksa |
widawapaksa |
dipiksapi |
||||
|
D""! ui)p.'iksa |
widuijpaksa |
||||||
|
5 a. |
Piur. 3. paks'ipi |
nipaksapi |
mapaksapi |
widapaksapi |
nipaksapi |
uijpiksapi |
|
|
2. yapaksapi |
mayapaksapi |
widayapaksapi |
uijyapaksapi |
||||
|
a, |
1. uqpiksapi |
uqnipaksapi |
wicuQpaksapi |
up nipaksapi |
|||
|
"t^ |
Sing. 3. yaksa |
niyaksa |
mayaksa |
widayaksa |
niyaksapi |
uqyaksapi |
|
|
"ii |
2. daksi |
may^daksa |
widadaksa |
uijyadaksapi |
|||
|
'-0 |
1. mdaksa |
ciyaksa |
widamdaksa |
diyaksapi |
|||
|
o |
D"!"! uijyaksa |
widi'iijyaksa |
|||||
|
f |
Piur. 3. yaksapi |
niydksapi |
mayaksapi |
widayaksapi |
niyaksapi |
uijyaksapi |
|
|
1 |
2. daksipi |
mayadaksapi |
wid^daksapi |
uriyddaksapi |
|||
|
>> |
1. uijyaksapi |
uijniyaksapi |
wicui)yaksapi |
uijniyaksapi |
|||
|
"% |
Sing. 3. yuksi |
niyuksa |
mayuksa |
widayuksa |
niyuksapi |
upyuksapi |
|
|
"8 »> |
2. duksi |
mayaduksa |
widaduksa |
uijyaduksapi |
|||
|
J; 's |
1. mduksi |
ciyuksa |
widi'imduksa |
ciyuksapi |
|||
|
D">' uijyuksa |
widuijyuksa |
||||||
|
■s a |
Piur. 3. yuicsipi |
niyuksapi |
mayuksapi |
wid'iyuksapi |
niyuksapi |
uijyuksapi |
|
|
Hi J* |
2. duks'ipi |
mayaduksapi |
wididuksapi |
ugyiduksapi |
|||
|
3 |
1. uoyuksapi |
uqniyuksapi |
widijqyuksapi |
HI) niyuksapi |
VERBS.
29
|
Frequentative. |
Absolute. |
Reflexive. |
Possessive. |
Dative. |
|
Sing. 3. baksaksa |
wabaksa |
bai^iksa |
bakiksa |
bakiciksa |
|
2. bayaksaksa |
wabayaksa |
bani^Jiksa |
bay4kiksa |
bayeciksa |
|
1. baw;iksaksa |
wabiwaksa |
bami^iksa |
baw4kiksa |
baweciksa |
|
Dual baliriksaksa |
wabauijksa |
bauqki^iksa |
bafiijkiksa |
baui)kiciksa |
|
piur. 3. baksiksapi |
wab6,ksapi |
bai^iksapi |
bakiksapi |
bakiciksapi |
|
2. bay4ksaksapi |
wabayaksapi |
bani(Jiksapi |
bay4kiksapi |
bayeciksapi |
|
1. bauijksaksapi |
wab4ui)ksapi |
bauqki^iksapi |
bauijkiksapi |
bauijkiciksapi |
|
Sing. 3. boksuksa |
wab6ksa |
boi(^iksa |
bokiksa |
bokiciksa |
|
2. boyaksaksa |
waboyaksa |
boni^Jiksa |
boy4kiksa |
boyediksa |
|
1. bowaksaksa |
wabowaksa |
bomi^iksa |
bowakiksa |
boweciksa |
|
Dual boui)ksaksa |
wabouqksa |
bour)ki(5iksa |
bouijkiksa |
bouijkiciksa |
|
piur. 3. boksaksapi |
■wab6ksapi |
boi^iksapi |
bokiksapi |
bokiciksapi |
|
2. boyaksaksapi |
waboyaksapi |
boiii(Jiksapi |
boy4kiksapi |
boyeciksapi |
|
1. bouijksaksapi |
wabouijksapi |
boui)ki^,iksapi |
bourikiksapi |
boui)kiciksapi |
|
Sing. 3. kaksdksa |
wak4ksa |
ihdaksa |
hdaks4 |
kicicaksa |
|
2. yakaksaksa |
wayakaksa |
nihdaksa |
yahd4ksa |
yecicaksa |
|
1. wakiiksaksa |
wawakaksa |
mihdaksa |
wahdaksa |
wecicaksa |
|
Dual ui)kaksaksa |
wauqkaksa |
urjkihdaksa |
vir)hd4ksa |
ui) kicicaksa |
|
Piur. 3. kaksuksapi |
wakaksapi |
ilid4ksapi |
lidaks4pi |
kidicaksapi |
|
2. yak4ksaksapi |
wayakaksapi |
nihdaksapi |
yahd4ksapi |
yecicaksapi |
|
1. ui)k4ksaksapi |
waCirikaksapi |
uqkihdaksapi |
ui)hd4ksapi |
urjkic'idaksapi |
|
Sing. 3. naksAksa |
waniksa |
nai^iksa |
nakiksa |
nakiciksa |
|
2. nay^ksaksa |
wanayaksa |
nani(Jiksa |
naydkiksa |
nayeciksa |
|
1. nawdksaksa |
wanawaksa |
nami^iksa |
naw4kik.sa |
navveciksa |
|
Dual nauriksaksa |
wan&uijksa |
naur)ki(Jiksa |
naiir)kiksa |
naui)kiciksa |
|
Piur. 3. naksaksapi |
wanaksapi |
nai^iksapi |
nakiksapi |
nakiciksapi |
|
2. nayaksaksapi |
wanayaksapi |
nani^iksapi |
nay4kiksapi |
nayeciksapi |
|
1. nauijksaksapi |
wanauqksapi |
nau:i)ki(Jiksapi |
nauijkiksapi |
nafiijkiciksapi |
|
Sing. 3. paksaksa |
wapaksa |
i^ipaksa |
kpaks4 |
kidipaksa |
|
2. yap4ksaksa |
wayapaksa |
ni^ipaksa |
yakp4ksa |
yecipaksa |
|
1. wapaksaksa |
wawapaksa |
mi(^ipaksa |
wakp4ksa |
wecipaksa |
|
Dual ugpaksaksa |
wauqpaksa |
ui)k'i(Jipaksa |
uijkpaksa |
uijkicipaksa |
|
Piur. 3. paks4ksapi |
wapaksapi |
i^ipaksapi |
kpaksapi |
kicipaksapi |
|
2. yapaksaksapi |
way4paksapi |
ni^ipaksapi |
yakp4ksapi |
yec'ipaksapi |
|
1. uqp^ksaksapi |
wauijpaksapi |
uijki^ipaksapi |
ui)kp4ksapi |
UI) kicipaksapi |
|
Sing. 3. yaksiksa |
wayiksa |
ilid4ksa |
hdaksa |
kiciyaksa |
|
2. daks4ksa |
wadaksa |
nihdaksa |
yahd4ksa |
yec'iyaksa |
|
1. mdaks4ksa |
wamdaksa |
mihdaksa |
■wahd4ksa |
weciyaksa |
|
Dual uriyaksaksa |
wauijyaksa |
uqkihdaksa |
uijhdaksa |
UI) kiciyaksa |
|
Piur. 3. yaks4ksapi |
wayaksapi |
ihd^ksapi |
Ldaks4pi |
^iciyaksapi |
|
2. daksaksapi |
wadaksapi |
nihd4ksapi |
yahd4ksapi |
yeciyaksapi |
|
1. ui)yaksaksapi |
wauqyaksapi |
uijkihdaksapi |
ui)hd4ksapi |
uqkiciyaksapi |
|
Sing. 3. yuks4ksa |
woksa |
ihduksa |
hduks4 |
kiciyuksa |
|
2. duks4ksa |
waduksa |
nihduksa |
yahduksa |
yediyuksa |
|
1. mduks4ksa |
wamduksa |
niihduksa |
wahduksa |
wociyuksa |
|
Dual uqksaksa |
wauijyuksa |
uijkihduksa |
ui]hduksa |
UI) kiciyuksa |
|
Piur. 3. yuksaksapi |
w6ksapi |
ihdfiksapi |
hduks4pi |
kic'iyuksapi |
|
2. duks4ksapi |
waduksapi |
nihduksapi |
yahduksapi |
yeciyuksapi |
|
1. uijksaksapi |
wauqyuksapi |
uqkihduksapi |
ughduksapi |
u^kiciyuksapi |
30 ETYMOLOGY.
CHAPTER III.
NOUNS. FORMS OF NOUNS.
§ 60. Dakota nouns, like those of other languages, may be divided into two classes, primitive and derivative.
§ 61. Primitive nouns are those whose origin cannot be deduced from any other word ; as, maka, earth, peta,^re, pa, head, ista, eye, ate, father, ina, mother.
§ 62. Derivative nouns are those which are formed in various ways from other words, chiefly from verbs, adjectives, and other nouns. The principal classes of derivatives are as follows :
1. Nouns of the instrument are formed from active verbs by prefixing 'i;' as, yumdu, to plough, iyumdu, a plough ; kasdeda, to split, i6asdc6e, a wedge ; kahiqta, to rake or sweep, i6ahiqte, a rake or broom. These again are frequently com- pounded with other nouns. See § 68.
2. Nouns of the person or agent are formed from active verbs by prefixing ' wa ;' as, ihaqgya, to destroy, waihaqgye, a destroyer ; yawaste, to bless, wayawaste, one who blesses, a blesser.
3. Many abstract nouns are formed from verbs and adjectives by prefixing ' wo ;' as, ihaqgya, /o destroy, woihaxigye, destruction ; wayazar), to be sick, wowayazar), sickness ; waoq^ida, merciful, wowaoq^ida, mercy ; waste, good, wowaste, goodness.
4. Some nouns are formed from verbs and adjectives by prefixing ' o ;' as, Avaqka, to lie down, owaqka, ajloor; apa, to strike, oape, a stroke ; owa, to mark or write, oowa, a mark or letter of the alphabet ; sni, cold, as an adjective, osni, cold, a noun ; maste, hot, oma^te, heat.
5. a. ' Wi6a,' prefixed to neuter and intransitive verbs and adjectives, sometimes forms of them abstract nouns ; as, yazaq, to be sick, wi6ayazar) and wawidayazai), sickness ; waste, good, wi6awa^te, goodness.
b. It sometimes forms nouns of the agent ; as, yasi6a, to speak evil of, curse, widayasi6e, a curser.
c. Some nouns, by prefixing ' wi6a ' or its contraction ' wi6,' have their significa- tion limited to the human species ; as, wi6a6aqte, the human heart ; widanape, the human hand; widoie, human words; widoliaq, human actions. We also have widaatkuku, a father or one's father ; widahuqku, one's mother; widadiqda, one's children.
In like manner ' ta ' (not the possessive pronoun, but the generic name of ruminating animals, and particularly applied to the moose) is prefixed to the names of various members of the body, and limits the signification to such animals ; as, tacaqte, a buffalo or deei's heart ; tapa, a deer's head ; tacezi, o buffaloes tongue ; taha, a deer's skin ; tac'esdi, the ' hois de vache ' of the prairie.
When to such nouns is prefixed ' wa ' (from wahai)ksic'a, a bear), their signification is limited to the bear species ; as, wapa, a bear''s head ; waha, a bear's skin ; wa^uij, a bear's den.
In like manner, ' ho,' from hogai), a fish, prefixed to a few nouns, limits their signification to that genus ; as, hoape, _/?«A-_/fras ; hoa^ke, the bunch on the head of a fish.
NOUNS. 3];
6. Abstract nouns are formed from adjectives by prefixing ' wido,' which may be regarded as compounded of ' wi6a ' and ' wo ;' as waste, good, widowa^te, goodness, waoq^ida, vierciful ; wi6owaor) sida, mercy.
7. a. Nouns are formed from verbs in the intransitive or absolute state by suffixing ' pi ;' as, wowa, to paint or write, wowapi, (^they wrote something) something written, a writing or book ; wayawa, to count, wayawapi,^^Mres or arithmetic.
b. Any verb may be used with the plural ending as a verbal noun or gerund, sometimes without, but more commonly with, the definite article ; as, i6azo, to take credit, i6azopi, credit ; wayawaste, to bless, wayawastepi, blessing; waihaijgya, /o destroy, waihaqgyapi, destroying ; e6or), to do, ecoqpi kiq, the doing of a thing.
8. When ' s'a ' is used after verbs, it denotes frequency of action, and gives them the force of nouns of the person; as, kage s'a, a maker; edoqpi s'a, doers ; yakogpi s'a, dwellers.
Diminutives.
§ 63. ' Daq ' or ' na ' is suffixed to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs, and has sometimes a diminutive and sometimes a restrictive signification.
1. Suffixed to nouns, ' daq ' is generally diminutive ; as, mde, lake, mdedaq, little lake ; wakpa, river, wakpadai), little river or rivulet ; apa, some, apadai), a small part.
2. Some nouns now appear only with the diminutive ending, although they may formerly have been used without it; as, hoksidaq, boy ; suqlipadaq, little dog, puppy ; ^uqgidaq, fox.
3. Nouns ending with this diminutive take the plural termination before the daq ; as, hok^idaq, boy, hok^ipidaq, boys.
4. Some nouns ending in ' na,' when they take the plural form, change ' na ' into ' daq ;' as, wi6iqyaqna, girl, widiqyaqpidaq, girls ; wanistiqna, a few, plur. wani- stiqpidaq. In some cases ' daq ' is used only in the plural form ; as, tonana, a few, plur. tonanaqpidaq.
The Ihar)ktoi)wai3s and Sisitogwaijs commonly use ' na,' and the Titoijwaijs ' la,' instead of ' dar),' for ihe diminutive ending; as, hoksina and hoksila, for hoksidaq.
§ 64. 1. ' Daq ' is often joined to adjectives and verbs, as the last principal word in the clause, although it properly belongs to the noun ; as, ^uktaqka waq waste-daq {horse a good-little), a good little horse, not a horse a little good ; ni6iqksi ceye-daq {thy-son cries-little), thy little son cries.
2. When used with a transitive verb, ' daq ' may belong either to the subject or the object of the verb; as, nisuqka suqka kiktedaq (thy-brother dog his-killed-little), thy little brother killed his dog, or thy brother killed his little dog.
Gender.
§ 65. 1. Gender is sometimes distinguished by different names for the masculine and feminine; as, wicasta, man, winolliq6a, woman; tataqka, buffalo bull, pte, buffalo cow ; hehaka, the male elk, upaq, the female elk.
2. But more commonly the distinction is made by means of adjectives. ' Wi6a ' and ' wiqyaq ' denote the male and female of the human species ; as, hoksiyokopa
32 ETYMOLOGY.
wi6a, a male cMc?, hok^iyokopa wiqyar), a female child. 'Mdoka' and 'wiye' distinguish the sex of animals ; as, tamdoka, a buck ; tawiyedaq, a doe, the 'daq' being diminutive. These words, however, are often written separately ; as, pagoqta mdoka, a drake ; zitkadaq wiye, a hen bird. In some instances contraction takes place ; as, suqg mdoka, a horse ; ^uqg wiye, a mare, from suqka.
3. Proper names of females of the human species frequently have 'wiq,' an abbreviation of ' wiqyar),' female, for their termination ; as, Totidutawii) (woman of her red house); Wakaqkaiiu^uwiq (female spirit that pays debts). Sometimes the diminutive ' wiqna ' is used for ' wiq ;' as, Mahpiwiqna (cloud woman).
Number.
§ 66. To nouns belong two numbers, the singular and plural.
1. The plural of animate objects is denoted by the termination 'pi,' which is attached either to the noun itself; as, suqka, a dog, suqkapi, dogs ; or, as is more commonly the case, to the adjective or verb which follows it in the same phrase ; as, ^uqka ksapapi, wise dogs ; suqka e6or)pi, dogs did it.
2. a. Names of inanimate objects seldom take the plural termination, even when used with a plural meaning ; as, 6ar), a tree or trees ; maga, a field or fields.
h. On the other hand, some nouns formed from verbs by adding the plural termination ' pi ' (§ 62. 7. a.) are used with a singular as well as a plural meaning ; as, tipi, a house or houses ; wowapi, a book or books.
Case.
§ 67. Dakota nouns may be said to have two principal cases, the nominative and objective.
The nominative and objective cases are usually known by the place which they occupy in the sentence. When two nouns are used, the one the subject and the other the object of the action, the subject is placed first, the object next, and the verb last ; as, wi6asta wag wowapi waq kaga, (yuan a book a made) a man made a book ; Dawid Sopiya wastedaka, (David Sophia loves) David loves Sophia ; Dakota Besdeke widaktepi, (Dakota Fox-Indian them-they-killed) the Dakotas killed the Fox Indians.
When, from some consideration, it is manifest which must be the nominative, the arrangement may be diflferent ; as, y/idaita Wakai)tai)ka kaga, (man God made) God made man.
As this distinction of case is rather syntactical than etymological, see further in the Syntax.
Possession.
§ 68. The relation of two nouns to each other, as possessor and possessed, is sometimes indicated by placing them in juxtaposition, the name of the possessor coming first ; as, wahukeza ihupa, spear-handle ; tipi tiyopa, house-door ; wi6asta oie, man^s word.
Sometimes the first noun suffers contraction; a&, mah.6\T)csi,, a gosling, iot maga ciijca (^roose-cA/W), mahiyumdu, a plough, for maga iyumdu (field-plough) ; mahicahiijte, a rake, for m4ga icahiijte (field- rake).
NOUNS. 33
§ 69. But the relation is pointed out more definitely by adding to the last term a possessive pronoun, either separate or incorporated.
1. Sometimes the pronouns ' tawa ' and ' tawapi ' are used after the second noun ; as, tataqka woyute tawa, (hiffalo food his) huf aid's food ; woyute suktaqka tawa- pi, (yfood horse theirs) horses' food ; wi6a^tayatapi tipi tawa, {chief house his) the chief's house.
2. a. But generally the possessive pronouns are prefixed to the name of the thing possessed ; as, tataqka tawote, (buffalo his-food) buffalo's food ; Dawid taaqpetu, {David his-day) the days of David.
Sometimes ' ti ' is prefixed instead of ' ta ;' as, waqhiijkpe, an arrow ; Dawid tiwar)hiijkpe, David's arrow.
Nouns commencing with ' i ' or ' o ' prefix ' t ' only ; as, ipahig, a pillow ; Hake tipahiq, Hake's pillow ; owiqia, a bed ; Hake towijjze, Hake's bed.
Abstract nouns which commence witli ' wo ' drop the ' w ' and prefix ' t ;' as, wowaste, goodness ; Wa- kar)tai)ka towaste, Ood's goodness. (See § 23. 2. b.)
b. Nouns expressing relationship form their genitive by means of the suffix pro- nouns ' ku,' ' 6u,' ' tku ;' as, suqka, younger brother, Dawid suqkaku, David's younger brother ; 6ii)ye, the elder brother of a man, Tomas 6iq6u, Thomas's elder brother ; 6iqk8i, a daughter, wi6asta diqksitku, man's daughter.
Proper and Family Names.
§ 70. The proper names of the Dakotas are words, simple and compounded, which are in common use in the language. They are usually given to children by the father, grandfather, or some other influential relative. When young men have distinguished themselves in battle, they frequently take to themselves new names, as the names of distinguished ancestors or warriors now dead. The son of a chief, when he comes to the chieftainship, generally takes the name of his father or grandfather; so that the same names, as in other more powerful dynasties, are handed down along the royal lines.
1. a. Dakota proper names sometimes consist of a single noun ; as, Mahpiya, Cloud ; Hoksidai), Boy ; Wamdeni6a, Orphan; Wowadiqyai), Faith.
b. Sometimes they consist of a single adjective ; as, Sakpe, {Six) Little-six, the chief at Prairieville.
2. a. But more frequently they are composed of a noun and adjective ; as, Ista- hba, {eyes-sleepy) Sleepy-eyes ; Tatar) ka-haq ska, {buffalo-long) Long buffalo ; Mato- hota, Grizzly-bear ; Wamdi-duta, Scarlet-eagle ; Mato-tamahe6a, Lean-bear ; Maza- hota. Grey-iron ; Maza-s'a, Sounding-metal ; Wapaha-sa, Red-Jlag-staff, called now Wabeshaw.
b. Sometimes they are formed of two nouns ; as, Mahpiya-wi^asta, Cloud-man ; Pe^ihuta-wi^a^ta, Medicine-man; Ite-wakigyaq, Thunder-face.
3. Sometimes a possessive pronoun is prefixed ; as, Ta-mako6e, His country ; Ta-peta-tar)ka, His-great-fire ; Ta-oyate-duta, His-red-people.
4. a. Sometimes they consist of verbs in the intransitive form, which may be rendered by nouns ; as, Wakute, Shooter ; Wanapeya, One-who-causes-flight.
34
ETYMOLOGY,
b. Sometimes they are compounded of a noun and verb; as, Aki6ita-naiiq, Standing-soldier or Sentinel ; Tatar)ka-na:iin, Standing-buffalo ; Mahpiya-mani, Walking-cloud ; Waqmdi-okiya, One-who-talks-with-the-cagle ; Mahpiya-hdinape, Cloud-that-appears-again.
c. Sometimes they are formed of two verbs ; as, Ir)yar)g-mani, One-who-walks- running. In some instances a preposition is prefixed ; as, Anawar)g-mani, One- who-walks-as-he-gallops-on.
§ 71. The names of the women are formed in the same way, but generally have *wiq ' or 'wiqna,' yema/e, added; as, Aqpetu-sapa-wii), Black-day-woman ; Mahpi- wiqna, Cloud-woman.
§ 72. The Dakotas have no family or surnames. But the children of a family have particular names which belong to them, in the order of their birth, up to the fifth child. These names are, for boys, Caske, Hepar), Hepi, Cataq, and Hake. For girls, they are, Winona, Hapai), Hapistiqna, Waqske, and Wihake. Thus the first child, if a boy, is called Caske, if a girl, Winona ; the second, if a boy, is called Hepaq, and if a girl, Hapaq, etc. If there are more than five children in the family, the others have no names of this kind.
§ 73. The names of certain family relations, both male and female, are pre- sented in the following table :
|
A Mail's. |
A Woman's. |
|
|
elder brother |
ciqye |
timdo |
|
elder sister |
taqke |
6ur) |
|
younger brother |
sui)ka |
sur)ka |
|
younger sister |
taqk^i |
taqka |
|
male cousin |
tahaq^i |
ii^esi |
|
female cousin |
haqkasi |
i6epaqsi |
|
brother-in-law |
tahaq |
si<^e |
|
sister-in-law |
haqka |
i6epar). |
r^f
The other relations, as, father, mother, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother, etc., are designated, both by men and women, by the same names.
CHAPTER IV.
ADJECTIVES.
§ 74. 1. Most adjectives in Dakota may be considered as primitive ; as, ska, white, tar)ka, large, waste, good.
2. A few are formed from verbs by prefixing 'wa;' as, oq^ida, to have mercy on one, waoqsida, merciful ; caqtekiya, to love, wadaqtkiya, benevolent.
ADJECTIVES. 35
§ 75. Final ' a ' or ' ai) ' of many adjectives is changed into ' e ' when followed by certain particles, as, hiqda, do, kiq or 6ii), etc. : si6a, had, ^i6e hiqda, very had ; wi6asta ^i6e 6ir), the had man.
Number.
^ 76. Adjectives have three numbers, the singular, dual, and plural.
§ 77. The dual is formed from the singular by prefixing or inserting 'ui),' the pronoun of the first person plural ; as, ksapa, wise ; wi6asta uqksapa, we two wise men; waoqsida, merciful ; waoi)siur)da, we two merciful ones.
§ 78. 1. The plural is formed by the addition of ' pi ' to the singular ; as, wa^te, good ; wi6asta wastepi, good men.
2. Another form of the plural which frequently occurs, especially in connexion with animals and inanimate objects, is made by a reduplication of one of the syllables.
a. Sometimes the first syllable reduplicates ; as, ksapa, wise, plur. ksaksapa ; taqka, great, plur. taqktaqka.
h. In some cases the last syllable reduplicates ; as, wa^te, good, plur. wa^te^te.
c. And sometimes a middle syllable is reduphcated ; as, taijkir) jai), great or large, plur. taqkiqkiqyar).
Comp
arison.
§ 79. Adjectives are not inflected to denote degrees of comparison, but are increased or diminished in signification by means of adverbs.
1. a. What may be called the comparative degree is formed by sai^pa, more ; as, wa^te, good, saqpa waste, more good or hetter. When the name of the person or thing, with which the comparison is made, immediately precedes, the preposition 'i' is employed to indicate the relation, and is prefixed to saqpa; as, wi6a^ta kiq de isaqpa waste, this man is hetter than that. Sometimes ' sam iyeya,' which may be translated more advanced, is used ; as, sam iyeya wa^te, more advanced good or hetter.
It is diflBcult to translate ' iyeya ' in tliis connexion, but it seems to convey the idea of passing on from one degree to another.
h. Often, too, comparison is made by saying that one is good and another is bad ; as, de si6a, he waste, this is had, that is good, i. e. that is hetter than this.
c. To diminish the signification of adjectives, ' kitaqna ' is often used ; as, taijka, large, kitaqna taqka, somewhat large, that is, not very large. ~^-
2. What may be called the superlative degree is formed by the use of ' iiina^ 'hiqca,' and 'iyotaq;' as, nina waste, or waste la.ir}6ii, very good; iyotaq wa^te, best.
36
ETYMOLOGY.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
Cardinals.
§ 80. The cardinal numerals are as follows
waq6a, waqi^i, or waq^idaq, one.
nor) pa, two.
yamni, three.
topa, four.
zap tag, Jive.
sakpe, six.
sakowiq, seven.
sahdogaq, eight.
nap6iqwaqka, nine.
wik6emna, wik6emna nor) pa, wik6emna yamni, wik6emna topa, opawiqge, opawiqge noqpa, kektopawiqge, woyawa taqka.
ten.
twenty, thirty, forty, a hundred, two hundred, a thousand, the great count, or a million.
1. The numbers from eleven to eighteen inclusive, are formed in two ways :
a. By ake, again; as, ake waqzidai), eleven; ake noqpa, twelve; ake yamni, thirteen, etc. Written in full, these would be wik6emna ake war)i;idar), ten again one ; wik6emna ake nor)pa, ten again two, etc.
In counting, the Dakotas use their fingers, bending them down as they pass on, until they reach ten. They then turn down a little finger, to remind them that one ten is laid away, and commence again. When the second ten is counted, another finger goes down, and so on.
b. By saqpa, more ; as, wikcemna saqpa waq^idar), te7i more one, (10 + 1) or eleven; wik6emna saqpa topa, (10 + 4) fourteen ; wik6emna sagpa sahdogar), (10 + 8) eighteen.
2. Nineteen is formed by uqma, the other ; as, uqma napdiqwaqka, the other nine.
3. a. Wik6emna noqpa is (10 x 2) twenty, and so with thirty, forty, etc. The numbers between these are formed in the same way as between eleven and eighteen ; as, wikdemna noqpa saqpa waqiiidaq, or, wik6emna noqpa ake war)i;idar), (10X2+1) twenty-one ; wik6emna noigpa saqpa nap6iqwaqka, (10 x 2 + 9) twenty-nine ; wik6e- mna yamni saqpa topa, (10x3 + 4) thirty-four; wikdemna zaptaq saqpa nap6iq- waqka, (10 x 5 + 9) fifty-nine. Over one hundred, numbers are still formed in the same way ; as, opawiqge saqpa wik6emna sakpe saqpa sakowiq, (100 + [10X6] +7) one hundred and sixty-seven; kektopawiqge noqpa saqpa opawiqge zaptaq saqpa wik6enuia yamni saqpa sakpe, ([1000 x 2] + [100 x 5] + [10 x 3] + 6) two thousand five hundred and thirty-six.
b. The numbers between twenty and thirty, thirty and forty, etc., are occasionally expressed by placing an ordinal before the cardinal, which denotes that it is so many in such a ten ; as, iyamni topa, four of the third (ten) i. e. twenty-four ; itopa yamni, three of the fourth (ten) i. e. thirty-three.
§ 81. Numeral adjectives by reduplicating a syllable express the idea of two and two or by twos, three and three or by threes, etc. ; as, nomnoqpa, by twos ; yamnimni, by threes ; toptopa, by fours, etc.
ADVERBS. 37
(1.) Waqiikzi, the reduplicate of wai)ii, properly means hy ones, but is used to signify a few.
(2.) Noijpa and topa are often contracted into nom and torn ; and are generally reduplicated in this form ; as, nomnom, hy twos ; tomtom, by fours.
(3.) Yamni, zaptag, sakowir), and wikc'emna, reduplicate the last syllable ; as, yamnimni, zaptaijptai), sakowiijwii), and wikcemnamna. The same is true of opawiijge and kektopawii)ge ; as, opawiqgege, by hundreds.
(4.) Napciowaijka and ^ahdogaij reduplicate a middle syllable, as, napcii(wai)gwai)ka, by nines, 4ahdohdogag, by eights.
§ 82. Wai]6a, noqpa, yamni, etc., are also used for once, twice, thrice, etc. Noqpa noqpa he6en topa, twice two so four, that is, twice two are four. And ' akihde ' is sometimes used for this purpose ; as, noqpa akihde noi)pa, two times two.
§ 83 1. 'Daq ' or 'na,' suffixed to numeral adjectives, is restrictive ; as, yanrni, three, ysunnins,, only three ; zsiptar},fve, za,ptaT:)iiaL, only fve.
2. With monosyllabic words ' na ' is doubled, as, nom, two, nomnana, only two ; tOTa, four, tomnana, only four ; huqh, a part, huqllnana, only a part.
Ordinals.
§ 84. 1. The ordinal numbers, after tokaheya,/r5/, are formed from cardinals by prefixing ' i,' ' i6i,' and ' yi'idi ;' as, inoqpa, i6inor)pa, and vsfi6inoqpa, second ; iyamni, i6iyamni, and vsri^iyamni, third; itopa, i6itopa, and wi6itopa, fourth; iwik6emna, tenth, etc.
2. In like manner we have iake waq^i, eleventh ; iake noqpa, twelfth ; lake yamni, thirteenth, etc.; iwik6emna noqpa, twentieth; iopawiqge, one hundredth, etc.
§ 85. When several numbers are used together, the last only has the ordinal form ; as, wik6emna noqpa saqpa iyamni, twenty-third ; opawiqge saqpa iake noqpa, hundred and twelfth.
CHAPTER V.
ADVERBS.
§ 86. There are some adverbs, in very common use, whose derivation from other parts of speech is not now apparent, and which may therefore be considered as primitives ; as, e6a, when ; kuya and kun, under, below ; kitaqna, a little, not much ; nina and liir)6a, very ; ohiqni, always; saqpa, more ; taqkan, without, out of doors ; waqna, now, etc.
§ 87. But adverbs in Dakota are, for the most part, derived from demonstrative pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs ; and in some instances from other parts of speech.
1. Adverbs are formed from demonstrative pronouns, by adding 'han' and 'haq,' ' ken ' and ' 6en,' ' ketu ' and ' 6etu,' ' en,' ' ki ' and ' kiya,' ' <Si ' and ' diya.'
a. By adding ' han ' and ' haq ;' as, de, this, dehan, here, now ; he, that, hehan, there, then ; ka, that, kahan and kahaq, then, there, so far.
38 ETYMOLOGY. ,
b. By adding ' ken ' and ' den ;' as, kaken, in this manner ; e6a, when, edaken, whenever, always ; de6en, thus ; heden, in that way,
c. By adding ' ketu ' and ' detu ;' as, kaketu, m that manner ; de6etu, in this way ; hedetu, so, thus.
d. By adding ' en,' in, in a contracted form ; as, de, this, den, here ; he, that, hen, there ; ka, that, kan, yonder ; tukte, which ? tukten, where ?
e. By adding ' ki ' and ' 6i,' ' kiya ' and ' 6iya ;' as, ka, that, kaki and kakiya, there ; de, this, de6i and dediya, here.
2. Adverbs are formed from adjectives, by adding ' ya ;' as, wa^te, good, wasteya, well ; sida, had, sidaya, hadly ; taqka, great, taqkaya, greatly, extensively.
3. a. Adverbs are formed from verbs, by adding ' yai) ;' as, iyuskii), to rejoice, iyuskiqyar), rejoicingly, gladly ; taqyai), well, may be from the obsolete verb ' tai) ' (as they still use ataq, to regard, take care of) ; itoqsni, to tell a lie, itoqsniyaq,
falsely.
b. Some are formed by adding ' ya ' alone ; as, aokaga, to tell a falsehood about one, nokahya., falsely.
c. In a few instances adverbs are formed from verbs by adding ' na ;' as, inahni, to be in haste, inahnina, hastily, temporarily.
4. Adverbs are formed from other adverbs.
a. By adding ' tu ;' as, dehan, now, dehantu, at this time ; hehan, then, hehantu, at that time ; tohan, when ? tohantu, at what time ?
b. Other forms are made by adding ' ya ' to the preceding ; as, dehantuya, thus, here ; hehantuya, there ; dedetuya, so ; toketuya, in whatever way.
c. Others still are made by the further addition of ' ken ;' as, dehantuyaken, toketuyaken. The meaning appears to be substantially the same after the addition of ' ken ' as before.
d. Adverbs are formed from other adverbs by adding ' yai} ;' as, dehan, now, here, dehaqyar), to this time or place, so far ; tohan, when? tohaqyai), as long as, how long? ohir)ni, always, ohiqniyaq, ybr ever.
e. Adverbs are formed from other adverbs by adding ' tkiya ;' as, kun, below, kuqtkiya, downwards ; waqkan, above, waqkaq tkiya, upwards.
5. Some adverbs are formed from nouns.
a. By prefixing ' a ' and taking the adverbial termination ' ya ;' as, paha, a hill, apahaya, hill-like, convexly ; wanida, none, awanin and awaninya, in a destroying way.
b. By suffixing ' ata ' or ' yata,' etc. ; as, he^ a hill or ridge, lleyata, back at the hill.
6. Adverbs are derived from prepositions.
a. By adding ' tu ' or ' tuya ;' as, mahen, in or within, mahentu or mahetu and mahetuya, iriwardly.
b. By adding ' wapa ;' as, ako, beyond, akowapa, onward ; mahen, in, raahenwapa, inwardly.
PREPOSITIONS. 39
CHAPTER VI.
PREPOSITIONS. § 88. Prepositions may be divided into separate and incorporated.
Separate Prepositions.
§ 89. The separate prepositions in Dakota follow the nouns which they govern, and hence might properly be called postpositions ; as, 6ar) akan nawaiiir), {wood upon I-stand) I stand upon wood ; he maza oq kagapi, (that iron of is-made) that is made of iron. The following are the principal separate prepositions ; viz. :
ahna, with etkiya, towards om, with
skaa, on or upon Gin, at or], of ox from, with, for
ako, beyond kahda, by, near to opta, through
ehna, amongst kici, with saijpa, beyond
e\i.iK, at, to vcvahen, within isci)\\ai\, from
en, in ohna, in yata, at.
etarjhai), from ohomni, around
Incorporated Prepositions.
§ 90. These are suffixed to nouns, prefixed to or inserted into verbs, and prefixed to adverbs, etc.
§ 91. The prepositions suffixed to nouns are ' ta,' and ' ata ' or ' yata,' at or on ; as, tiqta, prairie, tiqtata, at or on the prairie ; maga, a field, magata, at the field ; 6ai], wood or woods, 6aqyata, at the woods. The preposition en, in, contracted, is suffixed to a few nouns ; as, ti, a house, tin, in the house. These formations may in some cases be regarded as adverbs ; as, he, a hill or ridge, heyata, at the hill or back from.
§ 92. The prepositions ' a,' ' e,' ' i,' ' o,' instead of being suffixed to the noun, are prefixed to the verb.
1. a. The preposition ' a,' ofi or upon, is probably a contraction of ' akan,' and is prefixed to a very large number of verbs ; as, mani, to walk, amani, to walk on, 6ar)kaga amawani, / walk on a log.
b. The preposition ' e,' to or at, is probably from ' ekta,' and is prefixed to some verbs ; as, yuhpa, to lay down any thing one is carrying, eyuhpa, to lay down at a place.
c. The preposition ' i ' prefixed to verbs means with, for, on account of ; as, cekiya, to pray, i6ekiya, to pray for a thing.
d. The preposition ' o,' in, is a contraction of ' ohna,' and is found in a large class of verbs ; as, hnaka, to place or lay down, ohnaka, to place a thing in some- thing else.
2. The prepositions which are either prefixed to or inserted into verbs, in the pronouns' place, are ' ki ' and ' kidi.'
a. ' Ki,' as a preposition incorporated in verbs, means to or for, as, kaga, to make ki6aga, to make to one ; huwe ya, to go to bring any thing, kihuwe ya, to go to bring a thing ybr one.
40
ETYMOLOGY.
b. ' Ki6i ' incorporated into verbs means for ; as, kaksa, to chop off, as a stick ; ki(5i6aksa, to chop off for one.
§ 93. The preposition ' i ' is prefixed to a class of adverbs giving them the force of prepositions. In these cases it expresses relation to or connexion with the pre- ceding noun ; as, tehaq, for, itehaq, for foom any time or place ; heyata, behind, iheyata, back of something. These adverbial prepositions are such as :
iako, beyond iakan, upon iaskadai), near to idahda, by, near to ihakam, behind ihduk^aq, round about ihektara, behind
ihukuya, U7ider iheyata, behind, back of ikaqyeta, down from ikiyedag, near to isaqpa, beyond itakasaqpa, over from itaijkan, without
itehar) , far from itokam, before iwaqkam, above iyohakam, after iyotahedaq, between iyotahepi, between iyotakoqs, opposite to.
CHAPTER VII.
CONJUNCTIONS.
§ 94. Conjunctions in Dakota, as in other languages, are used to connect words and sentences ; as, waste ]j;a ksapa, good and wise ; wi6asta si6e6a koya, men and children : " Uqkaq Wakar)tar)ka, Ozaqiaq kta, eya : uqkar) o^aqi^ai)," And God said, ' Let light be :' and light was.
§ 95. The following is a list of the principal conjunctions ; viz. : uqkaq, ^a and (Ja, and ; ko and koya, also, and ; uqkaq^, kiqhaq and 6ir)haq, kinahag and (Sina- har), if ; e^ta and sta, kes and 6e^, kes and (Jes, although ; kaes and (Jae^, t:eyas and (Jeya^, even if; k:a i^, or ; tuka, but.
CHAPTER VIII.
INTERJECTIONS.
§ 96. It is very difficult to translate, or even to classify Dakota interjections. Those in common use may be arranged under the following heads, according to the emotions they express.
Pain: yuq ! wiqswi ! ah! oh!
Regret : hehe ! hehehe ! hughe ! hug hug he ! oh ! alas !
Surprise: hopidag ! hopidagniye ! hopidagsni ! igah ! inama ! igyug ! iyanaka! wonderful ! surprising ! astonishing ! truly ! indeed !
Attention : a ! e ! bes ! hiwo ! iho ! ito ! mali ! toko ! wag ! hark ! look ! see ! behold ! halloo !
Self-praise : ihdatag ! ihdatagh ! boast !
Affrmation: e6alie ! e6as ! e6aes ! ees ! ehaes ! ehtakaes ! eyake^ ! eyakes ! nakas ! nakaes ! indeed ! truly ! yes !
Disbelief: eze ! hes ! higte ! ho ! hoe6ah ! iyesni6a ! oho ! fe ! fudge ! you donH say so !
PART THIRD
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I.
PRONOUNS. PLACE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
Incorporated Pronouns.
§ 97. The incorporated pronouns are either prefixed to or inserted into verbs, adjectives, and nouns.
1. Position in Verbs.
§ 98. 1. a. Monosyllabic verbs, such as, ba, to blame, da, to ask for, etc., neces- sarily prefix the pronouns ; as, mayaba, (me-thou-blamest) thou blamest me.
b. Those verbs which are formed by adding the prefixes ' ka ' and ' pa,' and also the possessive forms in ' kpa ' or ' tpa,' ' hda,' and ' hdu,' have the pronouns pre- fixed; as, kaksa, to cut off with an axe, wakaksa, I cut off; pagaq, to part with any thing, wapagaq, I part with ; kpagaq and tpagarj, to part with one's own, wakpagag, / part with my own ; hduta, to eat one's own, wahduta, / eat my own.
c. Other verbs, v^hose initial letter is ' d ' or ' k,' have the pronouns prefixed ; as, daka, to esteem so, wadaka, / esteem so ; kaga, to make, yakaga, thou makest.
d. For the forms of the subjective pronouns of the first person singular and the second person singular and plural of verbs in ' ya ' and ' yu,' see §§ 39. b, 50.
2. a. All verbs commencing with a vowel which is not a prefix, insert the pronouns immediately after the vowel ; as, opa, to follow, owapa, I follow ; except- ing the first person plural, ' uqk,' which is prefixed; as, uqkopapi, we follow. But ouqpapi is also used.
b. The prefixing of the prepositions ' a,' ' e,' ' i,' ' o,' does not alter the place of the pronouns ; as, ka^taq, to pour out, waka^taq, I pour out ; oka^taq, to pour out in, owaka^taq, / pour out in; paita, to bind, pawahta, I bind ; apahta, to bind on, apawahta, / bind on.
c. Verbs formed from verbal roots and adjectives by prefixing ' ba,' ' bo,' and ' na,' take the pronouns after the prefix ; as, baksa, to cut off with a knife, bawaksa, I cut off; boksa, to shoot off, as a limb, boyaksa, thou shootest off; naksa, to break off with the foot, nawaksa, I break off with the foot.
d. Other verbs whose initial letter is ' 6,' ' 6,' ' m,' or ' n,' have the pronouns inserted after the first syllable ; as, 6apa, to stab, 6awapa, / stab ; mani, to walk,
F
42 SYNTAX. ,
mawani, / walk. Pahta, to hind or tie, also inserts the pronouns after the first syllable.
e. Verbs that insert or prefix thd prepositions ' ki ' and ' ki6i,' take the pronouns immediately before the prepositions. See § 40. 5. a. b.
f. Active verbs formed from other verbs, adjectives, or nouns, by adding the causative ' kiya ' or ' ya,' take the pronouns immediately before the causative ; as, waqyagkiya, to cause to see, waqyagmakiya, he causes me to see ; samkiya, to blacken, samwakiya, / blacken ; 6aqtekiya, to love, daqtewakiya, / love any one.
g. The compound personal and reflexive pronouns (§ 24) occupy the same place in verbs as do the ordinary incorporated pronouns : as, wastedaka, to love, wastewa- daka, / love any thing, wastemi(^idaka, / love myself.
2. Position in Adjectives.
§ 99. 1. a. The pronouns are prefixed to what maybe called adjective verbs and adjectives; as, yazaq, to be sick, taq6aq mayazag, (body me-sick) my body is sick ; waste, good, niwaste, {thee-good) thou art good.
b. The pronouns ' ma,' ' ni,' and ' uq ' are prefixed to the simple numerals ; as, mawaq^idar), / am one ; ninogpapi, you are two ; uqyamnipi, we are three.
2. a. But if the adjective verb has assumed the absolute form by prefixing ' wa,' or if it commences with a vowel, the pronouns are inserted ; as, wayazaqka, to be sick, wamayazaqka, / am sick ; asni, to get well, amasni, / have recovered.
b. Waoqsida and wa6aqtkiya, and perhaps some others, which we are accus- tomed to call adjectives, insert the pronouns ; as, waoqsiwada, I am merciful.
3. Position in Nouns.
§ 100. 1. a. The possessive pronouns are always prefixed to the noun. See §§ 21. 22. 23.
6. When a noun and pronoun are joined together, with the substantive verb understood, the incorporated pronoun is prefixed to some nouns, and inserted in others ; as, nisuqka, (thee-dog) thou art a dog ; wini6a^ta, (thee-man) thou art a man ; Damakota, (me-Dakota) I am a Dakota.
In some nouns the pronoun may be placed either after the first or second syllable, according to the taste of the speaker; as, wicahiijc'a, an old man, wimac'ahiijca or wicamahiijda, I am an old man.
c. When a noun is used with an adjective or adjective verb, and a pronoun is required, it may be prefixed either to the noun or to the adjective ; as, nape masuta, (hand me-hard) or minape suta, (my-hand hard) my hand is hard.
2. In nouns compounded of a noun and adjective, the place of the pronoun is between them ; as, Isaqtaqka, (knife-big) an American, Isaqmataqka, / am an American.
4. Position with respect to each other.
§ 101. 1, When one personal pronoun is the subject and another the object of the same verb, the first person, whether nominative or objective, is placed before the
PRONOUNS. 43
second ; as, mayaduhapi, {me-you-have) you have me ; uijniyuhapi, (we-thee-have or we-you-have) we have thee or we have you.
2. Wi6a, the objective plural of the third person, when used in a verb with other pronouns, is placed first ; as, widawakaska, (them-I-hound) I hound them.
Number.
§ 102. Incorporated pronouns, when intended to express plurality, have the plural termination pi attached to the end of the word, whether verb, noun, or adjective ; as, wayazaq, he is sick, waugyazaqpi, we are sick; wakaga, I make any thing, uq- kagapi, we make ; nitasuqke, thy dog, nitasuqkepi, thy dogs or your dog or dogs ; niwa^te, thou art good, niwastepi, you are good.
Separate Pronouns.
§ 103. The separate personal pronouns stand first in the clauses to which they belong.
a. They stand first in propositions composed of a pronoun and noun, or of a pronoun and adjective ; as, miye Isaqmataqka, / am an American; uqkiye uqduwi- tapi, we are cold.
h. In a proposition composed of a pronoun and verb, whether the pronoun be the subject or object of the verb ; as, uqkiye uqyaqpi kta, we will go ; miye maka- 6ka, (me he-hound^ he bound me.
The separate pronouns are not needed for the purpose of showing the person and number of the verb, those being indicated by the incorporated pronouns, or inflexion of the verb ; but they are frequently used for the sake of emphasis : as, nisurjka he :^upi he ; hiya, he miye makupi, (thy-brother that was-given ? no, that me me-was-given) was that given to thy brother ? no, it was given to me ; ye masi wo ; hiya, miye mde kta, {to-go me-command ; no, me I-go will) send me ; no, I will go myself.
c. When a separate pronoun is used with a noun, one being the subject and the other the object of the same verb, the pronoun stands first ; as, miye mini wa6iq, (me water I-want) I want water ; niye toka kiq niyuzapi, (you enemy the you-took) the enemies took you. But when the pronoun is the object, as in this last example, it may stand after the noun ; as, toka kiq niye niyuzapi, (enemy the you you-took) the enemies took you.
d. In relative clauses, the separate pronoun is placed last ; as, wi6asta hi koq he miye, (man came that me) I am the man who came ; 6ni6iyapi kiq hena uqkiyepi, (you-help the those we) we are they who help you.
e. The adverb ']iiq6a' is often used with the separate pronouns to render them more emphatic ; as, miye hiq6a, (me very) my very self; niye nitawa hiq6a, (thee thine very) truly thine own.
f. In answering questions, the separate pronouns are sometimes used alone ; as, tuwe he6oq he ; miye, who did that ? I; tuwe yaka he ; niye, whom dost thou mean ? thee ; tuwe he kaga he ; iye, who made that ? he. But more frequently the verb is repeated in the answer with the pronouns ; as, he tuwe kaga he ; he miye wakaga, (that who made ? that me I-made) who made that ? I made it ; tuwe yaka he ; niye <Si6a, (whom meanest-thou ? thee, I-thee-mean) whom dost thou mean ? I mean thee.
44 SYNTAX.
Plural Termination.
§ 104. When the separate pronouns are used with verbs or adjectives, the plural termination is attached to the last word.
a. When the pronoun stands first, it is attached to the verb or adjective ; as, uqkiye e6oi)kupi, we did it ; niye yakagapi, you made it ; niye niwastepi, you are good.
b. When the pronoun stands last, it is attached also to the pronoun ; as, tona waog^idipi kiq hena niyepi, (as-many merciful the those you) you are they who are merciful.
Agreement of Pronouns.
§ 105. Personal pronouns, and the relative and interrogative tuwe, who, refer only to animate objects, and agree in person with their antecedents, which are either expressed or understood ; as, he tuwe, who is that ? de miye, this is I ; he Dawid tawa, that is David's ; he miye mitawa, that is mine ; he tuwe tawa, whose is that ?
Omission of Pronouns.
§ 106. The third person, being the form of expression which most commonly occurs, is seldom distinguished by the use of pronouns.
1. a. There is no incorporated pronoun of the third person either singular or plural, except ' wi6a' and 'ta.' See §§ 18. 6, 19. 4, 23. 1.
h. The separate pronoun ' iye ' of the third person, and its plural ' iyepi,' are frequently used in the nominative and sometimes in the objective case.
2. But ordinarily, and always, except in the above cases, no pronoun of the third person is used in Dakota ; as, ^iyo waq kute ka o, {grouse a shot and killed) he shot a grouse and killed it ; suktaijka kii) yuzapi ka kaska hdepi, (horse the caught and tied placed) they caught the horse and tied him.
Repetition of Pronouns.
§ 107. 1. In the case of verbs connected by conjunctions, the incorporated subjective pronouns of the first and second persons must be repeated, as in other languages, in each verb ; as, wahi, ka waqmdake, ^a ohiwaya, / came, and I saw, and I conquered.
2. a. ' Wi6a ' and other objective incorporated pronouns follow the same rule ; as, tataqka kiq waqwidamdake ^a widawakte, (huffalo the, them-I-saw, and them-I-killed) I saw the buffalo and killed them.
b. So too in adjective verbs ; as, oqnisike ^a ni^ihtiq, (thee-poor and thee-feeble) thou art poor and feeble.
3. Two or more nouns connected by conjunctions require the possessive pronoun to be used with each ; as, nitasuqke ka nitamazakaq, thy-dog and thy-gun.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 108. Demonstrative pronouns may generally be used in Dakota wherever they would be required in English.
ARTICLES. 45
1. When a demonstrative pronoun forms with a noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb, a proposition, of which it is the subject or object, it is placed first ; as, hena tataijkapi, those are oxen ; de miye, this is I ; dena wasteste, these are good; he mayaku, (that me-thou-gavesi) thou gavest me that.
2. But when used as a quahficative of a noun, or noun and adjective, it is placed last ; as, wi6a^ta kiq hena, (man the those) those men ; wi6a6ta waste kig dena, (man good the these) these good men.
§ 109. The demonstrative pronouns ' he ' and ' hena ' are often used where personal pronouns would be in English ; as, ate uma^i kiq he widayadapi sni, (father me-sent the that ye-believe not) my father who sent me, him ye believe not ; ate uma^i kig he mahdaotaqiq, (father me-sent the that rg.e-declareth) my father who sent me he beareth witness of me.
§ 110. Demonstrative pronouns are often used in Dakota when they would not be required in English ; as, isaq kiq he iwa6u, (knife the that I-took) I took the knife.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 111. 1. Tuwe, who, and taku, what, are used, both as interrogative and relative pronouns, and in both cases they stand at the beginning of the phrase or sentence ; as, tuwe yaka he, whom dost thou mean ? taku odake 6ir), what thou relatest.
2. a. In affirmative sentences, ' tuwe ' and ' taku ' are often used as nouns, the former meaning some person, and the latter, some thing ; as, tuwe he manor), some one has stolen that ; taku iyewaya, / have found something.
b. In negative sentences with ' daq ' suffixed, tuwe may be rendered no one, and taku nothing ; as, tuwedaq hi sni, no one came (lit. some-little-person came not) ; takudaq duhe hm, (some-little-thing thou-hast not) thou hast nothing. See § 25. 3.
§ 112. It has been shown (§ 25. 1) that compound relative pronouns are formed by joining ' ka^ta ' or ' kake^ ' to ' tuwe ' and ' taku ;' as, tuwe ka^ta hi kiqhai) he wa^u kta, (whoever comes if, that I-give will) if any one comes, I will give it to him ; taku kasta waqmdake diqhai) wakute kta, (whatever T-see if, I-shootwill) if I see any thing I will shoot it, or / will shoot whatever I see.
ARTICLES.
Definite Article.
Position.
§ 113. 1. When a noun is used without any quahficative, the definite article immediately follows the noun; as, maka kiq, (earth the) the earth; wida^ta kiq waste, (man the good) the man is good.
2. When a noun is used with an adjective as a qualifying term, the article follows the adjective ; as, widasta wa^te kiq, (man good the) the good man.
3. When the noun is followed by a verb, an adverb and verb, or an adjective, adverb, and verb, the definite article follows at the end of the phrase, and is generally rendered into Enghsh by a demonstrative or relative pronoun and article ; as, taku
46 SYNTAX.
e6amoq kii), (what I-did the) that which I did ; wi6a^ta 6i6aya ohaqyaqpi kir), (men badly do the) the men who do badly ; wi^a^ta si6a si6aya oiaqyaqpi kiq, (men bad badly do the) the bad men who do badly.
§ 114. The signs of the past tense, 'koq ' and ' 6i^oi),' are used in the place of the definite article, and are rendered by the article and relative ; as, wida^ta waqmdake 6ikoq, the man whom I saw.
Use.
§ 115. In general, the definite article in Dakota is used where it would be in English. But it also occurs in many places where in English it is not admissi- ble.
a. It is used with nouns that denote a class ; as, widasta kiq bosdan na^iqpi, (men the upright stand) men stand upright ; suktaqka kir) duzahaqpi, (horses the swift) horses are swift or run fast.
h. It is often used, as in Greek, French, etc., with abstract nouns; as, wowa^te kiq, (goodness the) goodness ; woaht^ni kir) awihnuniwi6aya, (sin the destroy s-them) sin destroys them.
c. It is used with a noun in the vocative case ; as, maka kiq nahoq wo, (earth the hear-thou) O earth, hear !
d. As in Greek and Italian, it is used with nouns which are quahfied by posses- sive or demonstrative pronouns; as, ninape kiq, (thy-hand the) thy hand; wida^ta kiq de, (man the this) this man.
e. It is often used with finite verbs giving to them the force of gerunds or verbal nouns; as, kagapi kiq, the making; mauquipi kiq, (we walk the) our walking; yahi kiq iyomakipi, (thou-come the me-pleases) thy coming pleases me.
§ 116. In Dakota, the definite article is sometimes omitted where it would be required in English.
a. Nouns governed by prepositions are generally used without the article ; as, 6oqkaske ekta mda, (garrison to I-go) I am going to the garrison ; 6aq mahen wai, (wood into I-went) I went into the woods ; tiqta akan muqka, (prairie upon I-lie) I lie upon the prairie.
b. Proper names and names of rivers and lakes are commonly used without the article; as, Tataqka-na^iq, (buffalo-stands) The-standing-buffalo ; Wakpa-minisota, the Minnesota river ; Mdeiyedaq, Lac-qui-parle.
c. When two nouns come together in the relation of possessor and possessed (§ 68), the last only takes the article, or rather the entire expression is rendered definite by a single article placed after it ; as, 6aqpahmihma ihupa kiq, the thill of the cart ; Wasi6uq wi6astayatapi kiq, the King of the French.
Indefinite Article.
§ 117. The indefinite article is more limited in its use than the definite, but so far as its use extends it follows the same rules ; as, hoksidaq waq, (boy a) a boy ; hoksidaq waste waq, (boy good a) a good boy.
§ 118. Sometimes both articles are used in the same phrase, in which case the
VERBS. 47
definite is rendered by the relative (see § 113. 3) ; as, wi6asta waq wa^te kii) he kaga, {man a good the that made) he was a good man who made that.
CHAPTER II.
VEKBS. Position of Verbs.
§ 119. 1. Dakota verbs are usually placed after the nouns with which they are used, whether subject or object ; as, hoksidai) kir) mani, (hoy the walks) the boy walks ; wowapi war) duha, (book a thou-hast) thou hast a book.
2. Verbs also are usually placed after the adjectives which qualify their subjects or objects, and after the adverbs which qualify the verbs ; as, Waanatar) wi6asta wayapike 6iq he taqyaq waqmdaka, (Waanatan man eloquent the that well I-saw) I saw Waanatan the eloquent man very plainly.
For the relative position of verbs and personal pronouns, see § 98.
Number.
Plural.
§ 120. A verb, by its form, designates the number of its subject or object, or both ; that is to say, the verb, being the last principal word in the sentence, usually takes the plural ending ' pi ' when the subject or object is plural in signifi- cation.
1. a. When the subject represents animate objects, the verb takes the plural termination ; as, manipi, they walk ; widasta kii) hipi, (man the came) the m,en came.
h. But when the subject of a verb denotes inanimate objects, the verb does not take a plural form for its nominative's sake ; as, 6aq topa i6aga, (tree four grows) four trees grow.
2. a. A verb also takes the plural termination when it has a plural object of the first or second persons; as, Wakaqtaqka uqkagapi, (God us-made) God made us ; Dakota niye Wakaqtaqka 6aqteni6iyapi, (Dakota you God you-loves) God loves you Dakotas.
b. When the plural object is of the third person, this plurality is pointed out by wi6a, them, incorporated in the verb ; as, war)wi6ayaka, he saw them ; Hake wahaqksida yanmi wi6akte, (Hake bear three them-killed) Hake killed three bears.
§ 121. As there is but one termination to signify plurality both of the subject and object, ambiguity is sometimes the result.
a. When the subject is of the first, and the object is of the second person, the plural termination may refer either to the subject or to the subject and object ; as, wasteuqnidakapi, we love thee, or we love you.
b. When the subject is of the third, and the object of the second person, the plural termination may refer either to the subject or the object, or to both ; as, wa^tenidakapi, they love thee, he loves you, or they love you.
48 SYNTAX.
§ 122. Nouns of multitude commonly require verbs in the plural number ; as, oyate he6oqpi, the people did that.
§ 123. The verb ' yukai) ' is often used in its singular form with a plural mean- ing ; as, w^akiyedaq ota ynkaq, there are many pigeons,
§ 124. The verb ' yeya,' and its derivatives 'iyeya,' ' hiyeya,' etc., have rarely a plural termination though used with a plural subject ; as, wi<5ota hen hiyeya, many persons are there.
Dual.
§ 125. 1. The dual is used only as the subject of the verb and to denote the person speaking and the person spoken to. It has the same form as the plural pronoun of the first person, excepting that it does not take the termination ' pi.'
2. Hence, as this pronoun is, in meaning, a combination of the first and second persons, it can be used only with an object of the third person, except when, the agent and patient being the same persons, it assumes the reflexive form (§ 24.) ; as, wasteuqdaka, we two (meaning thou and /) love him ; wastewi6ur)daka, we two love them. See § 42. 1.
Government of Verbs.
§ 126. Active transitive verbs govern the objective case ; as, makaska, (me binds) he binds me ; wi6asta wag waqmdaka, {nian a I-saw) I saw a man. § 127. Active verbs may govern two objectives.
1. A verb may govern two direct objects or so-called accusatives. When an action on a part of the person is spoken of, the whole person is represented by an incorporated pronoun, and the part by a noun in apposition with the pronoun ; as, nape mayaduza, {hand me-thou-iakest) thou takest me by the hand, or thou takest my hand. Compare the French, ' me prendre la main.''
2. A verb may govern a direct object or accusative and an indirect object answering to a dative.
a. When one of the objects is a pronoun, it must be attached to the verb ; as, wowapi kiq he mayaku kta, (book the that me-thou-give wilt) thou wilt give me that book.
b. But when both the objects are nouns, the indirect is usually placed before the direct object ; as, Hepaq wowapi yaku kta, (Hepan book thou-give wilt) thou wilt give Hepan a book ; Hepi taspaqtaqka wan hiyukiya wo, {Hepi apple a toss) toss Hepi an apple.
§ 128. Transitive verbs with the prepositions ' a' or ' o ' prefixed may govern two objectives, and even three when two of them refer to the same person or thing ; as, ^ina kiq anidahpapi, (blanket the on-thee-laid) they covered thee with a blanket ; mini pa amakastaq, (water head on-me-poured) he poured water on my head.
§ 129. Intransitive verbs, with the prepositions ' a ' or ' o ' prefixed, govern an objective case ; as, mani, to walk, 6aqku kiq omani, (road the in-walks) he walks in the road; hai), to stand, maka kiq awahaq, (earth the on-I-stand) I stand on the earth.
VERBS. 49-
FORMS.
Possessive Form.
§ 130. This form of the verb is used whenever possession or property is indicated, and is very important in the Dakota language. For the ways in which the possessive form is made, see § 40. 4.
The use of this form of the verb does not necessarily exclude the possessive pronoun, but renders it superfluous ; as, nape yahduiaia, (hand thou-washest-thine-own) thou dost wash thy hands ; ninape yahduiaia is also correct. The occurrence of the possessive pronoun does not render the possessive form of the verb the less necessary.
MOODS.
Imperative,
§ 131. 1. In prohibitions the imperative mood is often indicated by the adverb ' ihnuhaq ' placed before the verb, with ' kiq ' or ' kiqhai],' ' 6iq ' or ' diqhaq,' follow- ing : as, ihnuhai) hedanoq kiij, do not do that ; ihnuhar) wi6ayadapi kiqhai), do not believe it. This is a stronger form than the common imperative.
2. When two verbs in the imperative mood are connected by conjunctions, the first is used without the sign ; as, owiqia kiq ehdaku \a. mani wo, take up thy bed and walk.
Infinitive.
§ 132. 1. Verbs in the infinitive mood immediately precede those by which they are governed ; as, 6aq kakse yahi, {wood to-cut thou-hast-come) thou hast come to cut wood ; he e6oq 6isipi, / told you to do that.
2. The use of the infinitive mood in Dakota is limited, the finite verb being often used where the infinitive would be in English ; as, mda wa6iq, {I-go I-desire) I desire to go.
3. The infinitive mood cannot be used as a noun, as it sometimes is in English ; that is, it cannot have any thing predicated of it, as in the phrases, " to see the sun is pleasant," " to walk is fatiguing." In such cases verbal nouns or gerunds are used ; as, wi waqyakapi kiq he oiyokipi, {sun seeing the that pleasant^ the seeing of the sun is pleasant.
Subjunctive.
§ 133. What may be called the subjunctive mood is formed by the aid of con- junctions which follow the verb. (See § 43.)
1. a. Kiqhaq and its derivatives, (Siqhaq, kinahaq, and 6inahai], usually refer to fixture time, future events only being considered as uncertain and contingent ; as, yahi kiqhaq mde kta, if thou come, I will go.
But ' kiijhai) ' does not always render the sense subjunctive, it being sometimes used as an adverb of time, especially when preceded by tohan ; as, tohan yahi kighaij mde kta, when thou contest, I will go.
6
50
SYNTAX.
6. When anything past is spoken of as uncertain, 'hediqhai) ' is commonly used; as, he6anoq hediqhaq eien ohdaka wo, if thou didst that, confess it.
2. The conjunctions e^ta, sta, k;eya^, and ke^, signifying though, although, are also used to form the subjunctive mood ; as, o6i6iyaka esta wi6ayada 6ni, although I tell thee, thou dost not believe ; hi l^eya^ ki6i mde kte sni, though he come, I will not go with him ; amapa l^es en ewa6aqmi sni, though he struck me, I paid no attention to it.
3. Uqkaqs, if, usually relates to past time or to something already known, and is used to state what would have been the case if the thing mentioned had been different from what it is. It is usually followed by tuka, hut ; as, miye6i6aiu^u ugkaqs 6i(Ju kta tuka, {me-thou-hadst-paid if, I-thee-give would but) if thou hadst paid me, I would have given it to thee; suktaqka mduha uqkaqs mde kta tuka, (horse I-had if, I-go would but) if I had a horse I would go.
Optative, Potential, <Sfc.
§ 134. The adverb tokiq, oh that ! is used with verbs to express strong desire ; in which case an ' n ' is suffixed to the verb ; as, tokiq mduhen, oh that I had it !
§ 135. The Dakotas have no way of expressing fully and forcibly the ideas of necessity and obligation. The place of the English words ought and must is partially supplied by the word iyededa, ft, proper ; as, e6anoq kta iye6e6a, it is fit that thou shouldst do it.
§ 136. 1. The idea of abihty or power is expressed by the help of the verb okihi, to be able, used after other verbs, which are either in the form of the infinitive or gerund ; as, e6og owakihi, {to-do I-able) I am able to do it, or / can do it ; manipi kir) owakihi, {walking the I-able) I can walk. Or they are put in a finite form ; as, Suktaqka mduza owakihi, {horse I-catch I-able) I can catch a horse.
2. Inabihty is expressed either by ' okihi ' with the negative ' sni,' or ' okitpani ;' as, mawani kta owakihi ^ni, or, mawani kta owakitpani, {I-walk will I-cannot) I cannot walk. 'Toka' or ' tokadaq,' followed by the negative '^ni,' is often used for the same purpose; as, tokadaq mawani sni, {any-way I-walk 7iot) I cannot possibly walk.
3. The word ' pi6a ' is suffixed to verbs to denote possibility or that the thing can he done ; as, e6oqpi6a, it can be done ; waqyagpi6a, it can he seen. But it more frequently occurs with the negative ' sni ;' as, kahpida 6ni, it cannot be made.
TENSES.
§ 137. Notwithstanding the Dakota verb has but two distinct forms of tense, there is no difficulty in expressing, by the help of adverbs, etc., all the varieties of time found in other languages.
Aorist Tense.
§ 138. 1. The aorist is used to denote present time, and generally needs no mark to show that the present is referred to, that being usually determined by attendant circumstances or by the context ; as, tiyata yaqka, nakalia waqmdaka, he is at the house, I have just seen him.
VERBS. ^
2. When necessary the adverb dehan, now-, or hinahiq, yet, is used to indicate present timej as, dehan tiyata yagka, he is now at the house ; hinahiq den ui), he is here yet.
3. The aorist is used in general propositions, which apply equally to present, past, and future ; as, si6e6a waskuye6a wastedapi, children love fruit.
§ 139. 1. The predominant use of the aorist is to denote past time, it being always used in the narration of past events ; as, e6amoq, I have done it ; he du^taq, thou hast finished that.
2. a. By the help of the adverb waijna, now, the aorist expresses perfect or finished time ; as, waqna yustaqpi, they have now finished it ; waqna o6i6iyaka, / have now told thee.
b. In a narrative of past events, ' waqna ' together with the aorist makes what is called the pluperfect tense ; as, waqna yustaqpi hehan wai, they had finished it when I arrived.
3. The aorist used with tuka, hut, expresses what is sometimes called the imper- fect tense ; as, hen wauq tuka, {there I-was but am not now) / was there.
§ 140. Before nsi6e6si, perhaps, the aorist tense is sometimes used for theyw/Mre; as, he6oq ma^ipi kiqhaq, e6amoq na6e6a, if they tell me to do that, I shall probably do it.
Future Tense.
§ 141. 1. The sign of the future tense is usually ' kta.' It may be used with verbs, adjectives, nouns, or pronouns ; as, mani kta, he will walk ; he wa^te kta, that will be good; he tiqta kta, that will be prairie ; he miye kta, that will be I.
2. The future tense is often used in narrating past events respecting something that was future at the time mentioned ; as, waqna upi kta hehan wai, they were about to come when I arrived there.
3. The future tense is used to denote that a thing would have taken place if something had not prevented. In this case it is commonly followed by 'tuka,' whether the reason is stated or not ; as, wau kta tuka, / would have come ; upi kta tuka wi6awakisi6a, they would have come but I forbade them.
4. The future tense with the adverb 'hiq6a,' is used to indicate a desire, purpose, or determination to do a thing ; as, mde kte hiq6a, (J-go will very) I want to go ; e6oq kte liiq6a e6oq, {do will very did) he did it because he wished to do it, or he did it intentionally.
5. The future tense is often used where the infinitive mood would be in English ; as, wau kta owakitpani, {I-come shall, I-unable) I am unable to come ; teyapi kta akitapi, they sought to kill him.
6. The future tense is sometimes used for the aorist, as in German, when there is uncertainty about the thing spoken of; as, tinwi6akte kiq hee kta, {murderer the that-be will) that is the murderer, the idea being, that he will be found to be the murderer.
7. When two verbs in the fiiture tense are connected by a conjunction, the first may be either with or without the sign ; as, nihiqni6iyapi kta ^a ya6eyapi kta, or nihiqni6iyapi ^a ya6eyapi kta, you will be troubled and weep.
/
62 SYNTAX.
§ 142. ' Nuq ' or ' nor) ' is sometimes used instead of ' kta,' as the sign of the future tense, in interrogative sentences, and also when something future is spoken of as uncertain; as, mda nuq he, shall I go? token e6or)pi nuq taqiq sni, they knew not what they should do.
§ 143. Before the verbs ' e6iq ' and ' epda,' ' ke ' sometimes marks the future tense of the first person ; as, mda ke ep6a, / will go thought I.
§ 144. In interrogative sentences ' hiq ' is sometimes used for 'kta he,' denoting the future tense ; as, wau hiq, shall I come ?
AUXILIARY VERBS.
§ 145. There are several verbs, which are used with others as auxiliaries, such as, ' iyeya,' ' kiya,' and ' ya ' or ' yaq.'
§ 146. 1. ' Iyeya,' when used with other verbs, expresses the additional ideas of completion and suddenness; as, yustaq iyeya, he made a finish of it ; kaksa iyeya, he cut it off suddenly. In this way ' iyeya ' is often used to give force and animation to the style.
2. Verbs used with ' iyeya,' if capable of contraction, are contracted ; as, kaptui;a, to split, kaptus iyeya, he split it open.
3. ' Iyeya ' is often used with prepositions and adverbs, sometimes with and sometimes without their taking the verbal prefixes ; as, pamahen iyeya, to push into ; yuhukun iyeya, to put down ; ohna iyeya and mahen iyeya, to put into any thing.
§ 147. ' Kiya' is used with verbs as a causative suffix ; as, edoqkiya, to cause to do ; kahkiya, to cause to make ; naiiqkiya, to cause to stand. The pronouns are inserted before the causative.
§ 148. ' Ya or ' yaq ' is a suffix which occurs so frequently, and whose use is sometimes so different from that of any English verb, that it demands a special notice.
1. a. It is used as a causative suffix ; as, e6oqya, to cause to do ; maniya, to cause to walk. In this case it always has a noun or pronoun for its object expressed or understood ; as, mani mayayapi, you cause me to walk.
h. ' Ya ' used with adjectives makes of them active verbs ; as, 6aya, to dye or paint red ; samya, to blacken.
2. a. It is used with words denoting relationship, where in Enghsh we should employ a possessive pronoun, and seems to have the force of to have, or have for ; as, he atewaya, {that father-I-have) that is my father ; Ateuqyaqpi mahpiya ekta naqke 6iq, {father-we-have heaven in thou-art the) our Father who art in heaven.
b. ' Ya ' with nouns shows what use a thing is put to ; as, de i^aqwaya, this I have for a knife ; he tiyopayaya, that thou usest for a door.
3. When the pronouns 'ma,' 'ni,' and 'uq,' are used without the pronoun 'ya' following, 'ya' becomes 'yaq ;' as, atemayaq, he has me for father ; ateuqyaqpi, our father. But when ' ya,' thou or you, follows, the vowel is not nasalized ; as, atemayaya, thou hast me for father ; ateuqyayapi, you call us father.
VERBS. j 53
VERBS OF REPETITION.
Reduplicated Verbs. \
§ 149. 1. The reduplication of a syllable in Dakota verbs is very common. In intransitive verbs it simply indicates a repetition of the action ; as, ipsi6a, to jump, ipsipsi6a, to hop or jump repeatedly; iha, to laugh, ihaha, to laugh often. In transitive verbs it either indicates that the action is repeated on the same object, or that it is performed upon several objects ; as, yahtaka, to bite, yahtahtaka, to bite often ; baksa, to cut a stick in two, baksaksa, to cut a stick in two often, or to cut several sticks in two. Verbs of one syllable are rarely reduplicated.
2. There are some verbs whose meaning almost necessarily implies a repetition of the action and which therefore are generally used in their reduplicated form ; as, yuhuhuza, to shake; panini, to jog ; kapsiqpsigta, to whip ; yusiqsiq, to tickle; nasuqsui), to struggle, etc.
3. Verbs signifying to be are repeated to denote continuance ; as, den mar)ka maqke, / continue to stay here ; hen dukaq dukaqpi, you reside there.
§ 150. The use of a reduplicated form of a verb in its proper place is very important. It is as much a violation of the rules of the Dakota language to use a simple for the reduplicated form, as to use the singular for the plural number.
Verbs with the Suffixes ' s'a ' and ' ka.'
§ 151. 'S'a' is suffixed to verbs to denote frequency of action or habit ; as, yahi s'a, thou earnest often ; iyatoq^ni s'a, thou dost tell lies habitually, i. e. thou art a liar ; wamanoq s'a, one who steals ojten, i. e. a thief.
§ 152. ' Ka' has sometimes the same signification with ' s'a ;' as, waoka, a good hunter. But sometimes it does not produce any perceptible difference in the mean- ing of the verb ; as, wa^teda and wastedaka, to love any thing.
§ 153. When the verb, to which 'ka' or ' s'a' is suffixed, takes the plural form, the suffix usually follows the plural termination ; as, waopika, marksmen ; edogpi s'a, doers. But in the verb ' da,' to esteem, ' ka ' may either precede or follow the plural termination ; as, wastedakapi and wastedapika.
SUBSTANTIVE VERBS.
§ 154. The verbs 'uq,' ' onqyaii,' 'yaqka,' 'yukaq,' and 'hiyeya,' all signify to he, but when used, they must be accompanied by other verbs, adverbs, parti- ciples, or prepositions, descriptive of the place or manner of being; as, mani wauq, / am walking ; ti mahen maijka, I am in the house ; he6iya yakoqpi, they are there ; en maur), it is in me.
§ 155. The verb ' ee ' occurs without a word descriptive of the mode or place of existence ; but it is confined to the third person, and is used rather to declare the identity than the existence of a thing. ' Yukaq ' is used to declare that there is, and wanida, that there is none ; as, Wakaqtaqka yukaq, there is a God ; Wakaqtaqka wanida, there is no God.
54 SYNTAX.
§ 156. The bringing of two words together in the Dakota language answers all the purposes of such a copula as our substantive verb ; as, Wakaqtaqka wa^te, {God good) God is good ; wi kiq kata, {sun the hoi) the sun is hot ; de miye, {this I) this is I ; hena iqyaq, {those stones) those are stones ; Danikota {Dakota-thou) thou art a Dakota.
§ 157. From these examples it appears that there is no real necessity for such a connecting link between words ; and accordingly we do not find any verb in the Dakota language which simply predicates being. The Dakotas cannot say abstractly, I am, thou art, he is ; but they can express all the modes and places of existence.
PARTICIPLES.
Active.
§ 158. 1. Active participles follow the nouns and precede the verbs with which they are used; as, mazakaq hduha yahi, {gun having thou-come) thou hast come having thy gun.
2. The objective pronouns are used with and governed by active participles, in the same way as by verbs ; as, mayuha yukaqpi, {me-haviiig they-remain) they still retain me ; niyuha yapi kta, {thee-having they-go will) they will take thee along.
3. Active participles are used to denote prolonged or continued action; as, kiksuya ui), he is remembering ; Wakaqtaqka dekiya uq, he is in the habit of praying to God ; ialiaq iduqhaq, whilst he was speaking.
4. A few participles are used with the verbs from which they are derived ; as, manihaq mani {walking walks) that is, he walks and does not ride; naiiqhaq na^iq, {standing he stands) he gets up and stands.
5. Two verbs together may be used as participles without a conjunction ; as, 6eya patu^ ina^ii), {weeping stooping stands) he stands stooping and weeping.
Passive.
§ 159. 1. A verb used as a passive participle follows the noun to which it relates ; as, taliir)6a kiq opi, the deer is shot.
2. Passive participles are used to make what may be called the passive form of the verb ; as, ktepi, killed, niktepi kta, thou wilt be killed.
3. They are sometimes used independently as nouns ; as, ktepi kiq, the slain.
CHAPTER III.
NOUNS. Position of Nouns.
§ 160. The place of the noun, whether subject or object, is before the verb ; as, wamnaheza idaga, corn grows ; mini wa6iq, {water I-want) I want water.
Occasionally the subject comes after the verb ; as, eya Wakaqtaijka, said Ood.
NOUNS. 55
§ 161. When two nouns are used together, one the subject and the other the object of the same verb, the subject is usually placed first (§ 67) ; as, tataqka peii yutapi, {oxen grass eat) oxen eat grass ; Dakota Padani kig wi6aktepi (Dakota Pawnee the them-killed) the Dakotas killed the Pawnees.
§ 162. Of two nouns in composition or combination the noun sustaining the relation of possessor always precedes the name of the thing possessed. See § 68.
Numher.
§ 163, The principle on which the plural termination is employed is that of placing it as near the end of the sentence as possible. The order in a Dakota sentence is, first the noun, next the adjective, and lastly the verb. Hence, if a noun or pronoun is used alone or has no word following it in the phrase, it may take the plural ending ; if an adjective follows, it is attached to the adjective ; and if a verb is used, it is attached to the verb.
1. When nouns are used to convey a plural idea, without qualificatives or predicates, they have the plural termination; as, ninapepi, thy hands; hena Dakotapi, those are Dakotas.
2. When a noun which represents an animate object is to be made plural, and is followed by a qualificative or predicate, the sign of the plural is joined, not to the noun, but to the qualificative or predicate ; as, widasta wastepi, good men ; ko^ka kiq hipi, the young men have arrived ; wi6asta waste kiq hipi, the good men have arrived.
§ 164. The plural of nouns representing animate objects in the objective case, whether they are governed by active verbs or prepositions, is designated by ' wi6a ' following, which is prefixed to or inserted in the governing word; as, tahiqda wi6aktepi, (deer them-they-kill) they kill deer ; Dakota ewidataqhaq, (Dakota them- frorn) he is from the Dakotas.
CHAPTER IV.
ADJECTIVES. Position.
§ 165. When the adjective is used simply as a qualifying term, it is placed immediately after its noun ; as, wi6a6ta wa^te, good man ; 6aq ^i6a, had wood.
The adjective ik<5e, common, is placed before the noun which it qualifies, but its derivative ikceka comes after ; as, ikce haijpa and hai)pikceka, common moccasins ; ikce wica^ta, a common man, an Indian. The numeral adjectives, when used with cajj, a day, are placed before ; as, noijpa caq, two days, etc.
§ 166. When the adjective forms the predicate of a proposition, it is placed after the article, and after the demonstrative pronoun, if either or both are used ; as, wi6asta kiq wa^te, the man is good ; wida^ta kiq he wa^te, that man is good ; taku e6anoq kiq he 6i6a, that which thou didst is bad.
56 SYNTAX.
Number.
§ 167. Adjectives, whether quaUficative or predicative, indicate the number of the nouns or pronouns to which they belong; as, iqyaq sapa waq, a black stone; inyar) sapsapa, black stones : tataqka kiq was'aka, the ox is stro7ig ; tataqka kiq was'akapi, tke oxen are strong.
2. Adjectives do not take the plural form when that can be pointed out by the verb of which the noun is either the subject or object (see §§ 163, 164); as, wi6asta waste he kagapi, (man good that they-made) good men made that ; Wakaqtaqka wi6asta waste nom wi6akaga, {Great-Spirit men good two them- made) God made two good men.
3. As the numeral adjectives after waqzi, denote plurality by virtue of their meaning, they may be used either with or without the plural termination; as, widasta yamni, or wicasta yamnipi, three men.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
§ 168. 1. Numeral adjectives used distributivcly take the reduplicated form ; as, yamni, three, yamnimni, three and three, yamnimni idupi, they each took three, or they took three of each.
2. Numeral adjectives are used alone, to express the number of times an event occurs ; as, yamni yahi, thou earnest three tbaes. When a succession of acts is spoken of, the word ' akihde ' is often used ; as, topa akihde yakutepi, you shot four times successively.
§ 169. To supply the want of words like place and ways in English, the adver- bial termination ' kiya ' is added to the numeral ; as, noqpakiya yakoqpi, they are in two different places ; he topakiya oyakapi, thrt is told in four different ways.
§ 170. The Dakotas use the term haqke, one half ; but when a thing is divided into more than two aliquot parts, they have no names for them ; that is, they have no expressions corresponding to one third, one fourth, one fifth, etc. By those who have made some progress in arithmetic, this want is supplied by the use of 'oq^pa' and the ordinal numbers; as, oqspa iyamni, {piece third) one third ; oq^pa itopa, {piece fourth) one fourth.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
§ 171. Owasii) and iynlipa, all, sakim and napin, both, apa and huqli, some or a pari, tonana and wanistiqna, few, a small quantity, uqma, the other, one of two, ota, many, much, and some others, are sometimes used as adjectives qualifying nouns, and sometimes stand in the place of nouns.
§ 172. 1. As the adjective 'ota,' many, much, conveys a plural idea, its redupli- cated form 'onota' or ' odota,' is not used when speaking of inanimate objects, except when different quantities or parcels are referred to ; as, ota awahdi, / have brought home many or much ; odota awahdi, I have brought home much of different kinds.
ADVERBS. 57
2. When ' ota ' relates to animate objects, it may have the plural termination, but is generally used without it. When it relates to the human species, and no noun precedes, it has ' wi6a ' prefixed ; as, wi6ota hipi, many persons came, or a multitude of persons came.
3. When ' ota ' relates to a number of different companies of persons, it has what may be called a double plural form, made by prefixing 'wi6a' and by reduplication ; as, wi6ok6ota ahi, companies of persons have arrived.
Repetition and Omission of Adjectives.
§ 173. 1. When the same thing is predicated of two or more nouns connected by conjunctions, the adjective is commonly repeated with each noun ; as, suktaqka kir) waste ka (Saqpahmihma kii) wa^te, the horse is good, and the waggon is good.
2. But sometimes a single adjective is made to apply to all the nouns by using a pronominal adjective or demonstrative pronoun ; as, suktaqka kiq ka daqpahmhma kiq napin wa^te, the horse and the waggon are both good ; wi6aBta ka winohiqda kiq hena wasteste, man and woman, they are beautiful ; Hepaq ka Hepi ka Hake, hena iyuhpa haqskapi, Hepan, and Hepi, and Hake, they are all tall.
3. When two nouns are connected by the conjunction ' ko ' or ' koya,' also, the adjective is only used once ; as, ^uktaqka 6aqpahmihma ko si6a, (horse waggon also bad) the horse and the waggon also are bad.
CHAPTER V.
ADVERBS.
§ 174. Adverbs are used to quaUfy verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; and some of them may, in particular cases, be used with nouns and pronoims ; as, iwastedaq mani, he walks slowly ; sidaya hduha uq, he is keeping it badly; nina waste, very good ; kitaqna taqyaq, tolerably well; he 6aq sni, (that wood not) that is not wood ; tonitaqhaq he, (whence-thou) whence art thou ?
Position.
§ 175. 1. Adverbs are commonly placed before the words which they qualify ; as, tagyaq wauq, / am well ; 6i6aya ohaqyaqpi, they do badly ; nina waste, very good.
2. a. The adverbs 'iiq6a' and 6ni' follow the words which they qualify; as, wa^te hiq6a, very good ; e6oq kte hii)6a, he wishes very much to do it ; e6oqpi 6ni, they did not do it.
b. The adverbs of time, ' kiqhai),' '6a' or 'e6a,' 'j^ehaq,' and ' 6oh,' are placed after the words to which they relate ; as, yahi kiqhaq, when thou earnest ; waqyaka e6a, when he sees it.
3. a. Interrogative adverbs commonly stand at the beginning of the clause or sentence ; as, toke6a wowapi dawa sni he, why dost thou not read ?
H
58 SYNTAX.
b. But ' to,' a contracted form of ' toke6a,' and ' he,' the common sign of interro- gation, stand at the end ; as, duhe sni to, why dost thou 7iot have it ? yahi he, hast thou arrived ?
§ 176. Interrogative adverbs and others often prefix or insert personal pronouns ; as, nitonakapi he, how many are there of you ? tonitaqhaq he, whence art thou ? hemataqhaq, / am from that place.
Reduplication.
§ 177. 1. Most adverbs may make a plural form by doubling a syllable, in which case they may refer either to the subject or the object of the verb, and are used with verbs both in the singular and plural number ; as, taqyaq ecoq, he does it well; taqtaqyaq e6oi), he has done several things well ; taqtaqyaq e6or)pi, they have done well.
2. If the verb relates to the united action of individuals, the adverb is not reduplicated ; but if the individuals are viewed as acting independently, the redupli- cated form must be used ; as, suktaqka kiq tketkeya kiqpi, the horses carry each a heavy load.
3. The reduplicated form of the adverb is used when reference is had to different times, places, distances, etc. ; as, wi6a^ta kiq tehaq ni, the man lived long ; wi6asta kig tehaqhaq nipi ede, men live long ; e6adar) wahi, / came soon ; e6a6adai) wahi, I come frequently ; he haqskaya baksa wo, cut that long ; hena haqskaskaya baksa wo, cut those long ; a^kadar) euqtipi, we encamped at a short distance ; a^ka^kadaq euqtipi, we encamped at short distances.
Use of Certain Adverbs.
§ 178. 1. In general propositions, ' e6a ' or ' 6a,' when, is used with ' e6e ' or ' 6e ' at the end of the clause or sentence ; as, waniyetu 6a wapa 6e, when it is winter it snows.
2, The particle '6e,' in most cases however, indicates the close of a direct quotation of the words of oneself or of another ; as, de6en e6anoq kiqhar) yani kta 6e, Wakaijtaqka eya 6e, if thou dost thus, thou shalt live, God said.
§ 179. In reply to questions which have the negative form, assent to the negative proposition contained in the question is expressed by haq, yes, and dissent by hiya, no ; as, yahi kte 6ni he ; haq, wahi kte km, thou wilt not come, wilt thou ? yes, I will not come ; yahi kte sni he ; hiya, wahi kta, thou wilt not come, wilt thou ? no, I will come. If the question be put affirmatively, the answer is the same as in English.
§ 180. 'Tohan' and 'kiqhai) ' are often used together with the same verb, in which case ' tohan ' precedes the verb and ' kiqhaij ' follows it ; as, tohan yahi kiqhai) mde kta, when thou comest I will go.
§ 181. When 'itokam' is used in reference to time, it is often preceded by the adverb of negation ; as, yahi sni itokam, (thou-comest not before) before thou comest.
Negative. § 182. 1. Negation is expressed by placing after the verb, adjective,, noun, or
PREPOSITIONS. 59
pronoun, the adverb ' sni ;' as, mde sni, (I-go not) I did not go ; he (5ar) sni, {that wood not) that is not wood.
2. An emphatic negation is sometimes indicated by ' ka6a,' which however is seldom used except in contradicting what has been previously said ; as, yao kada, thou didst 7iot hit it,
3. A negative used interrogatively often implies permission ; as, iyadu 6ni to, (dost thou not take it ?) may signify, thou mayest take it.
§ 183. 1. In Dakota, two negatives make an affirmative ; as, wanida, there is none ; wanide sni, {there-is-none not) i. e. there is some.
2. When two negative verbs are connected by a conjunction, the first may be without the sign of negation ; as, kakipe (^a iyotaq taqka sni, (he-surpassed and more great not) he neither surpassed nor was the greatest.
Signs of Interrogation.
§ 184. 1. ' He ' is the conmion interrogative particle, and is placed at the end of the sentence ; as, widayada he, dost thou believe ?
2. When the person spoken to is at a distance, ' hwo,' compounded of ' he ' and ' wo,' is used ; as, toki da hwo, whither art thou going ? This last is not used by females.
3. Sometimes ' ka ' is employed instead of ' he,' as the sign of interrogation ; as, he taku hogaq ka, what kind offish is that ?
4. Sometimes, however, the interrogation is distinguished only by the tone of voice. Unlike the English, the voice falls at the close of all interrogative sentences.
CHAPTER VI.
PREPOSITIONS.
§ 185. Prepositions are placed after the nouns which they govern.
a. Some are written as separate words (§ 89) ; as, maka kii) akan, on the earth ; tipi idahda, by the house ; doqka^ke ekta, at the garrisoti. In this case plurality of the noun is expressed by ' wida ' incorporated into the preposition ; as, tataijka kiq widikiyedar), (ox the them-near-to) near to the oxen ; Dakota ewidataqhaq, from the Dakotas.
b. Other prepositions are suffixed to nouns (§ 91); as, tiqtata, on the prairie; magata, at the field ; daijyata, at the woods.
c. And others are prefixed to the following verb (§ 92) ; as, amani, to walk on; idekiya, to pray for.
2. a. Pronouns governed by a preposition are sometimes prefixed to it, in which case those prepositions which have ' i ' for their initial letter cause an elision of the last vowel of the pronoun ; as, ikiyedaq, near to, mikiyedaq, near to me; itehai), far from, nitehax), far from thee. If the pronoun is plural, the plural termination is attached to the preposition ; as, urjketaqhaqpi, from us.
b. Sometimes the pronoun is inserted in the preposition, if the latter consists of more than two syllables ; as, enitaghaq,yro»i thee.
60 SYNTAX.
c. And sometimes it is contained in the following verb ; as, en man, he is coming to me, ekta nipi, they went to you.
§ 186. Of the two prepositions 'kidi ' and ' om,' both meaning with, the former governs singular and the latter plural nouns ; as, he kidi mde kta, I will go with him; hena om mde kta, / will go with them.
§ 187. 1, The names of the natural divisions of time, when they refer to the past, terminate in ' haq,' and when to the future, in 'tu;' as, wehaq, last spring; wetu, next spring.
The termination ' tu ' or ' etu,' in waniyetu, mdoketu, ptaijyetu, wetu, haijyetu, aijpetu, litayetu, etc., may have been originally a preposition, signifying, as it still does in other cases, at ot in ; and the ter- mination ' hai),' in wanihaq, wehaQ, mdokehai), ptiqhai), etc., is probably the adverbial ending.
2. The preposition ' i ' prefixed to the natural divisions of time signifies the next after ; as, iwetu, the spring following ; imdoketu, the next summer ; ihaqliaqna, the next morning.
CHAPTER VII.
CONJUNCTIONS.
§ 188. 1. Conjunctions commonly stand between the words or sentences which they connect ; as, mahpiya ka maka, heaven and earth ; wai)6iyaka tuka iye6i6iye sni, / saw thee hut I did not recognise thee ; e6oij yasi esta ecoq kte sni, {do thou- told although, do will not) although thou told him to do it, he will not.
2. But the conjunctions ' ko ' or ' koya ' and ' ahna ' are placed after the words they connect ; as, 6ar)ka waqhi ko mduha, (f re-steel flint also I have) I-have flint and steel ; malipiya maka ahna kaga, he made heaven and earth.
§ 189. 'Uqkai} ' and 'ka' both signify and, but they are used somewhat differ- ently, ' ka ' denoting a closer connexion than ' uqkaq.'
1. When two or more verbs having the same nominative are connected by a copulative conjunction, 'ka' is commonly used; as, ekta wai ka waqmdaka, I went and saw. But if a new nominative is introduced, ' uqkaq ' will be required j as, ekta wai uqkaq waqmayakapi, I went there and they saw me.
2. When after a period the sentence begins with a conjunction, ' ka ' is not used unless the sentence is closely connected with the preceding one.
3. ' Uqkar) ' never connects single nouns or adjectives, 'ka' and ' ko ' being used for that purpose ; as, waste Ika ksapa, good and wise ; 6aq mini ko, wood and water.
For the use of the conjunctions kiqhai], uqkaijs, and tuki, see § 133.
§ 190. The words ' edit) ' and ' nakaes,' although more properly adverbs, often supply the place of conjunctions ; as, he waku, e6ir) makida, / gave that to him, because he asked me for it ; he tewahiqda, nakae^ hededaq mduha, / refused that, because it was the only one I had.
§ 191. The idea conveyed by the conjunction than, cannot be expressed in Dakota directly. Such a phrase as, " It is better for me to die than to live," may
INTERLINEAR TRANSLATIONS. 61
indeed be rendered by an awkward periphrasis, in several ways ; as, mate 6'\x} he wa^te ka wani kii) he 6i6a, for me to die is good, and to live is bad ; wani kiq he wa^te esta mate 6iq he iyotaq wa^te, although it is good for me to live, it is more good for me to die ; or, mate kte 6iq he waste ^a wani kte 6iq he ^ica, that I shoidd die is good, and that I should live is had.
§ 1!}2. The conjunction or is represented by 'Ika is ;' but the sentences in which it is introduced have not the same brevity as in EngHsh ; as, J do not know whether he is there or not, hen uq ^a is hen uq sni, uqma tukte iye6etu sdonwaye sni, (there is or there is not, which of the two I know not ;) Is that a horse or an ox ? he suktaqka ka i^ tataqka uqma tukte hecetu he, {that horse or ox, which of the two ?)
CHAPTER VIII.
INTERJECTIONS. ,
§ 193. Some interjections have no connexion with other words, while others are used only as a part of a sentence. When connected with other words, interjections usually stand at the beginning of the phrase. Considerable knowledge of their use is necessary to enable one to understand the language well, as the interjections not only serve to indicate the feelings of the speaker, but often materially modify the meaning of a sentence ; as, hehehe, didita