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GENTURY COLLEOIMTE

i^mMmtiMi^

GARLAND GREfiVER

EASLEY S, -•— ^

REVISED EDITION

THE SENTENCE

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE	1 Fragments Wrongly Used as Sentences
THE CLEAR SENTENCE	5 Reference of Pronouns	6 Dangling Participles and Other Dangling Modifiers
GRAMMAR	10 Case	Agreement in Number
DICTION	15 Conciseness	16 Repetition
SPELLING	20 Spelling through Observing	21 Rules for Spelling
PUNCTUATION	25 The Comma	26 Superfluous Commas

LARGER ELEMENTS

THE WHOLE :OMPOSITION	30 Analyzing Your Material	1 — 31 Organizing Material
THE PARAGRAPH	35 Form and Length	36 Unity
CLEAR THINKING	40 Unsupported Statements	41 Contradictory Statements
STYLE	45 Naturalness and Smoothness	46 Tone and Imagery
TUDY HABITS	50 Use of a Library	51 Note-Taking and Summarizing
LEHERS AND MANUSCRIPT

AND ITS PARTS

2 The Run-together Sentence	3 The And Sentence	4 Omission of Words
7 Unnecessary Shift in Number, Tense, Voice, Mode	8 Parallelism	9 Coherence in Genera
12 fense. Mode, Auxiliaries	13 Substituted Forms end Elements	14 The Terms of Gramme
17 fhe Exoct Word or Idiom	18 Good Use	19 Glossary of Faulty Diction
22 ^ Spelling List	23 Compounds	24 Capital Letters
27 The Apostrophe	28 Quotation Marks	29 Other Marks

OF COMPOSITION

32 Outlines	33 A Direct, Lively Beginning	34 Developing and Ending
37 Coherence	38 The Topic Sentence	39 Paragraph Patterns
42 Definitions and Comparisons	43 Unrelated or Superfluous Ideas	44 Loose Thinking in General
47 Moderation	48 Emphasis	49 Variety in Sentence Structure
52 How to Write a Term Paper
53 Letters	54 Manuscript and Mechanics	55 How to Revise

THE CENTURY COLLEGIATE HANDBOOK

REVISED

i.

,,:V

THE CENTURY COLLEGIATE HANDBOOK

BY

Garland Greever

AND

Easley S. Jones

REVISED EDITION

D. APPLETON-CENTURY COMPANY

INCORPORATED

NEW YORK

LONDON

4126

COPYRIGHT, 1924, BY THE CENTURY CO. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION

The Century Collegiate Handbook, Revised Edition, is a manual for the use of college and university students of WTiting. Part I treats essential matters of sentence structure, grammar, diction, spelling, and punctuation. Part II treats the form and organization of the theme as a whole and of the paragraph, the large topics of logic and style, and the habits and procedures which students of wTiting do well to cultivate.

The plan of the original Century Collegiate Handbook was simple. That of the present text is even further simplified. Virtually every article is completely rewritten, and the number of articles is reduced from 139 to 55. This drastic numerical reduction not onl}^ is effected without loss of \dtal content, but is accompanied by the addition of units on library'' research, note-taking and summarizing, the writing of term papers, and theme re\dsion. The chart shows, on two opposite pages, the headings of articles, so that student or instructor can see at a glance the resources of the volume or the number of a par- ticular item.

The book, like its predecessor, throws upon the student the responsi- bility of t-eaching himself. Each article begins with a concise rule, which is illustrated with examples; then follows an exercise which the instructor may assign by adding an X to the numeral he writes in the margin of a theme. Necessarily, while performing the exercise the student will give attention to the rule. Thus he mil conquer his individual weakness through study of a basic principle, and will at every hand connect theory with practice.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART ONE THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

1. Fragments Wrongly Used as Sentences ... 3

2. The Run-together Sentence 12

3. The And Sentence 16

4. Omission of Words 19

THE CLEAR SENTENCE

5. Reference of Pronouns 25

6. Dangling Participles and Other Dangling

Modifiers 30

7. Unnecessary Shift in Number, Tense, Voice,

Mode 34

8. Parallelism 37

9. Coherence in General 42

GRAMMAR

10. Case 46

A. Pronouns with Finite Verbs 47

B. Pronouns with Infinitives 49

C. Pronouns ^ith Prepositions or in Expressions

Containing Appositives 50

D. Pronouns and Nouns as Possessives .... 51

vu

CONTENTS

11. Agreement in Number 53

A. Gross Ignorance or Inattontiveness in

General 54

B. Pronouns Grammatically Singular .... 55

C. There Is (Are) Sentences, and Other Sen-

tences with Subjects Following Verbs ... 56

D. Predicate Complements 56

E. Intervening Nouns or Pronouns 57

F. Compounds or Alternates with Verbs or

Pronouns 59

G. Collective Nouns 60

H. Nouns Plural in Form with Singular Cleaning 60

12. Tense, Mode, Auxiliaries 61

A. Tense 62

B. Special Problems Regarding Tense Forms . 64

C. Mode and Auxiharies 69

13. Substituted Forms and Elements 73

A. Adjectives vs. Adverbs 73

B. Other Substituted Forms and Elements . . 77

C. Double Capacity 79

14. The Terms of Grammar 81

DICTION

15. Conciseness 99

16. Repetition 102

A. Ungrammatical Repetition of an Element . 102

B. Awkward or Needless Repetition 103

C. Desirable Repetition 104

17. The Exact Word or Idiom 107

A. The Exact Word 107

B. The Exact Idiom 110

18. Good Use 113

19. Glossary of Faulty Diction 115

viii

CONTENTS

SPELLING

20. Spelling through Observing 130

A. Recording Your Own Errors 131

B. Spelling by Ear 131

C. Distinguishing Between Words That Sound

AUke 133

D. Mastering Trouble-Spot Words 135

E. SpeUing by Eye 135

21. Rules for Spelling 137

A. Words in ei or ie 137

B. Doubhng a Final Consonant 138

C. Dropping Final e 139

D. Changing Final y before a Suffix 140

E. Plurals 140

22. Spelling List 144

23. Compounds 148

24. Capital Letters ' . 152

A. In Ordinary Sentences, in Quotations, in

Titles, in Proper Names 152

B. In Regularly Added General Names . . . 154

PUNaUATION

25. The Comma 158

A. Commas to Separate Main Clauses when a

Conjunction Is Used 158

B. Commas to Separate the Items of a Series . 160

C. Commas to Enclose Interrupters (Paren-

thetic Elements) 163

D. Commas to Set Off Loose (Nonrestrictive)

Modifiers 167

E. The Comma to Separate Misleading Com-

binations of Words 173

26. Superfluous Commas 177

27. The Apostrophe 179

A. Contractions 179

B. Possessives 180

ix

CONTENTS

28. Quotation Marks 183

A. Ordinary Direct Discourse 183

B. Other Uses of Quotation Marks 185

29. Other Marks 187

A. End Marks 187

B. The Semicolon 188

C. The Colon 189

D. The Dash 191

E. Parentheses and Brackets 192

PART TWO THE LARGER ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITION

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION [Analysis on page 197.]

30. Analyzing Your Material and Shaping It FOR A Definite Purpose 198

31. Organizing Material before Writing . . . 201

32. Outlines 207

A. The Topic OutHne 207

B. Indention and Use of Symbols 208

C. Parallelism 209

D. Coordination and Subordination 210

E. The Sentence Outline 211

33. A Direct, Lively Beginning 215

34. Developing the Thought and Ending De- cisively 218

THE PARAGRAPH

35. Paragraph Form and Length and the Para- graphing of Dialogue 222

36. Unity in the Paragraph 227

37. Coherence in the Paragraph 231

CONTENTS

38. The Topic Sentence 235

39. Paragraph Patterns — Methods of Develop- ing THE Expository Paragraph ...... 239

A. The Method of Enumeration 240

B. The Method of Comparison or Contrast . .241

C. Other Methods (Combinations of A and B) 242

CLEAR THINKING

40. Unsupported Statements 248

41. Contradictory Statements 250

42. Definitions and Comparisons 253

A. Definitions 253

B. Comparisons 254

43. Unrelated or Superfluous Ideas or Elements 255

A. Unrelated Ideas 255

B. Superfluous Ideas or Details 257

44. Loose Thinking in General 258

A. Half-expressed Ideas 258

B. Transitional Ideas and Elements 260

C. Natural Order of Ideas 261

D. Natural Ranking of Ideas 264

E. Logical Conformity 265

STYLE

45. Naturalness and Smoothness 270

A. SimpUcity 270

B. OrderHness 271

C. Appeal to the Ear 273

46. Tone and Imagery 276

A. Harmony of Parts or Elements 276

• B. Figures of Speech .278

47. Moderation 279

xi

CONTENTS

48. Emphasis 281

A. Emphasis through Subordination 281

B. Emphasis through Separation 285

C. Emphasis through Position 287

D. Emphasis through Order of Parts 288

E. Emphasis through Structure of Parts . . . 289

F. Emphasis through Repetition 291

G. Emphasis through Concreteness 292

49. Variety in Sentence Structure 294

A. Varying the Length 294

B. Varying the Beginnings 294

C. Avoiding a Series of Like Compound Sen-

tences 295

D. Using Periodic or Balanced Structure for

Rehef 295

E. Asking Questions or Quoting Con v^ersation . 296

F. Avoiding an Overload of Participial Con-

structions, Adjectives, or Adverbs .... 296

STUDY HABITS

50. Use of a Library 298

A. Consulting the Card Catalogue 299

B. Making Out a Call SHp 299

C. Consulting Reference Works 299

D. Finding the Best Authorities on a Subject . 303

51. Note-Taking, Paraphrasing, Summarizing, Precis Writing, and Reading Habits in General 306

A. How to Take Notes 306

B. How to Paraphrase 307

C. How to Summarize 308

D. How to Write a Precis 309

E. Reading Habits in General 312

xii

CONTENTS

52. How TO Write a Term Paper 313

A. Limiting the Topic 313

B. Studying the Sources 314

C. Indicating the Sources 315

D. Organizing the Paper 318

E. A Specimen Term Paper 320

LEHERS AND MANUSCRIPT

53. Letters 333

A. The Heading, the Inside Address, and the

Greeting 333

B. The Body 335

C. The Greeting, the Close, and the Signature . 337

D. The Outside Address 339

E. Miscellaneous Directions 340

F. Formal Notes (Invitations) 342

54. Manuscript and Mechanics 345

A. Paper, Ink, and Endorsement 345

B. The Title 345

C. Spacing 346

D. Handwriting 346

E. Deletion and Insertion 346

F. Abbreviations 347

G. Syllabication 348

H. Numbers 350

I. ItaUcs 351

J. Quotations and References to Sources . . . 352

55. How TO Revise and Improve Your Writing . 354

Index

357

PART ONE THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE Fragments Wrongly Used as Sentences

1 . Do not write a subordinate part oF a sentence as iF it were a whole sentence.

THE COMPLETE STATEMENT TEST

Does the group of words make a complete statement? If it does, it forms a sentence. If it does not, it forms only a fragment of a sentence.

Wrong: Early man lacked the strength of the larger animals. And was inferior to many insects in the ability to live under adverse conditions. [Apply the test. Read aloud the words And was inferior to many insects in the ability to live under adverse conditions. Do these words make a complete statement? No. They contain part of a thought, but not a whole thought. To round out a thought they must be joined to other words.]

Right : Early man lacked the strength of the larger animals and was inferior to many insects in the ability to hve under adverse con- ditions.

Wrong: Behind the manager's desk sat a redheaded secretary. Rip- ping open envelopes and tossing them into a wastebasket. [The second group of words does not in itself convey a complete mean- ing. It must be joined to the first.]

Right : Behind the manager's desk sat a redheaded secretary, ripping open envelopes and tossing them into a wastebasket.

FIRST APPROACH TO THE GRAMMAR TEST

The complete statement test depends wholly on thought. It may be made by a person who is ignorant of grammar.

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

Nevertheless you as a student should know the basic gram- matical distinctions by means of which the wholeness of a sentence may be tested. The first distinction you should master is that between a finite verb and a verbal.

A finite verb is a verb in one of the forms which assert something. In the sentence "The baby now walks" the word walks tells us what the baby does; it is a finite verb. In the sentence "Snow has been falling since midnight" the words has been falling tell us what the snow has done; they are a finite verb.

A verbal is a word or group of words derived from a verb but used, at least mainly, as a noun or modifier. It does not take a subject. It does not, Hke a finite verb, assert something.

There are three kinds of verbals: participles, infinitives, and gerunds.

A participle is a verbal used as an adjective It may either precede or follow the noun it modifies. Examples:

Standing, a person seems tail. [Standing has the force of a

regular adjective: An erect person seems tall.] Isabel, musing, did not reply. [Regular adjective: Isabel,

pensive, did not reply.] At last the ship had become a hiilk, battered by a thousand

storms. [Regular adjective: The ship had become a hulk^

helpless after a thousand storms.]

An infinitive is a verbal used as a noun or modifier. Ordinarily it is introduced by to. Examples:

Her ability to sing was soon discovered. [Ordinary adjective:

Her vocal ability was soon discovered.] To have been defeated is his misfortune. [Ordinary noun: Past

defeat is his misfortune.]

4

FRAGMENTS WRONGLY USED AS SENTENCES

A gerund is a verbal used as a noun. Ordinarily it contains the ending ing. Examples:

Seeing is believing. [Ordinary nouns: Sight is belief.]

For having answered correctly you shall receive the prize.

[Ordinary noun: For correct answers you shall receive the

prize.]*

A group of words supported by a verbal alone (and not by a finite verb) cannot stand in a sentence to itself.

Oral Exercise

Point out each finite verb, each participle, each infinitive, each gerund.

1. Men are prone to misjudge.

2. Having pondered long, he is ready to decide.

3. We have been trying to give reasons for behaving as we did.

4. The child, crying fretfully, seems to have worn itself to sleep.

5. Through having built higher levees the engineers keep the stream from overflowing.

SECOND APPROACH TO THE GRAMMAR TEST

The second grammatical distinction which you as a student should learn is that between a main (or independent) clause and a subordinate (or dependent) clause.

A main clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and no subordinating word. Examples:

Wolves howl. [The clause contains but two words, a subject

wolves and a verb howl.] The imrest has increased alarmingly. [The clause contains a

subject unrest, a verb has increased, and other words

besides.]

* For a further study of verbals see 1 4.

6

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

Night has fallen and the stars have come forth. [Here are two main clauses. Each would express a complete thought if it stood in a sentence to itself, thus : Night has fallen. The stars have come forth.]

A subordinate clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and that does the work of a single part of speech — adjective, adverb, or noun. It is introduced by

a subordinating) when, where, if, while, though, unless, conjunction j because, as, that, so that, etc.; or a relative ) who, which, that, whom, whose, whoever, pronoun /(by) whom, (during) which, etc.

Examples :

Subordinate clause as adjective: The runner who wins is wildly

applauded. [The sentence could read: The successful runner is

^\ildly applauded.] Subordinate clause as adverb: They will come where we are. [The

sentence could read: They will come here.] Subordinate clause as noun: Whatever you ask shall be granted,

[The sentence could read: Your requests shall be granted.]

Since a subordinate clause does the work of a single part of speech, it cannot stand in a sentence to itself.*

When you have learned the difference between a finite verb and a verbal, and between a main clause and a subordinate clause, you can apply the grammar test to a sentence. The grammar test consists of two parts.

* Note, however, that some of the words listed as subordinating conjunctions or as relative pronouns may be used as other parts of speech, in which case they may belong to main clauses, that is, to complete sentences. Examples: When do you go? Where is your shawl? Who is the first? That is his room. That bucket leaks.

6

FRAGMENTS WRONGLY USED AS SENTENCES

THE GRAMMAR TEST

Does the group of words contain at least a subject and a finite verb? And does it form a main clause rather than a subordinate one?

If it does these two things, it is a sentence. If it fails to do either or both of them,* it is only a fragment of a sentence.

Wrong: The workmen cUmb to the second story. With hods of brick on their shoulders. [Read aloud the words With hods of brick on their shoulders. Do they contain a subject and verb? No; they do not contain any verb at all; they contain three nouns, but no subject. Try further. Do they form a main clause? No; they form no clause of either kind, main or subordinate. Hence by both parts of the graromar test they fail to constitute a sentence.]

Right: The workmen climb to the second story with hods of brick on their shoulders.

Wrong: It is easy to spend. When you have the cash in your pocket. [The words When you have the cash in your pocket con- tain a subject and a verb. But they are introduced by the sub- ordinating conjunction when; unlike a main clause, they fail to present a complete grammatical structure.]

Right : It is easy to spend when you have the cash in your pocket.

Research has shown that in the writing of students certain types of incomplete sentences recur.

CHIEF TYPES OF FRAGMENTS

Prepositional Phrase Detached**

Wrong: Such students work hard. From the very shortness of their hours or with an eye to Phi Beta Kappa.

* If it fails to do the first it cannot do the second.

> **A phrase is a group of words "introduced" by a preposition or a verbal (the "introducing" term does not always come first). A prepositional phrase is "introduced" by a preposition: of, in, with, by, for, like, to, at, down, from, over, under, through, between, among, above, below, except, etc.

7

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

Right : Such students work hard, from the very shortness of their hours or with an eye to Phi Beta Kappa.

Subordinate Clause Detached

Wrong: We must send social workers into the homes. If we would learn what the hving conditions are.

Right: We must send social workers into the homes if we would learn what the li^dng conditions are. [The if clause modifies must send.]

Wrong: The teamsters drive out these men. Who have come among them as stool pigeons.

Right: The teamsters drive out these men, who have come among them as stool pigeons. [The who clause modifies men.]

Verbal Phrase Detached

Wrong [participial phrase] : The tires are worn thin. Having been used for twenty thousand miles.

Right: The tires are worn thin, ha^'ing been used for twenty thousand miles. [Or] The tires are worn thin. They have been used for twenty thousand miles. [Often the best correction is to give the detached element a subject and verb and to express the idea independently.]

Wrong [infinitive phrase] : Thousands of men have been at work.

To check the spread of blister rust and beetles through the pine

forests of the South and West. Right : Thousands of men have been at work to check the spread

of bhster rust and beetles through the pine forests of the South

and West.

Wrong [gerund phrase j: Certainly you make yourself a law- breaker. By parking in front of driveways.

Right: Certainly you make yourself a lawbreaker by parking in front of driveways.

8

FRAGMENTS WRONGLY USED AS SENTENCES OTHER TYPES OF FRAGMENTS

Detached member of a compound predicate: Nowadays we erect

taUer buildings. But make them securer from earthquakes. Right: Nowadays we erect taUer bmldings but make them securer

from earthquakes. Detached appositive*: At Jamestown stands a ruined tower. A

memorial of the historic first settlement. Right: At Jamestown stands a ruined tower, a memorial of the

historic first settlement. Detached repetitions of a grammatical construction: It is a land of desert stretches. A land of distant mountains. A land of sparse population. Right- It is a land of desert stretches, a land of distant moun- tains, a land of sparse population. [Or] It is a land of desert stretches— a land of distant mountains— a land of sparse population. Detached items of a series: We may name the chief parts of a " fountain pen: first, the point. This does the writmg. Second, the barrel. This holds the ink. Thkd, the cap. This protects the pen when it is carried in the pocket. Right- We may name the chief parts of a fountain pen: the point, the barrel, and the cap. The first does the writing. The second holds the ink. The third protects the pen when it is carried m the pocket. [Or] We may name the chief parts of a fountain pen The first is the point; this does the writing. The second is the barrel; this holds the ink. The third is the cap; this protects the pen when it is carried in the pocket. Note 1 —A wrongly detached part of a sentence follows rather than precedes the main statement. The reason is that usually the main statement is complete in itself. The writer has reached a point

* An appositive accompanies a grammatically equal element and qualifies or explains it. Example: Elmquist, the secretary, replied.

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

where he can place a period and have a complete grammatical unit. This being so, he has not paused to ask whether the succeeding part can likewise stand alone. Careful writers test each statement to make sure whether it is complete without the aid of a preceding sentence.

Note 2. — Modem authors sometimes write fragmentary sentences for emphasis or other special effects. (Examples: "He could not boast of his victory. Because he had not won it." "The little boy, from the top of his ladder, looked down at Renfrew. And stuck out his tongue. And winked. And gloated.") But such writing should be left to experts. The beginner, whose mastery of the sentence is yet to be proved, must not abandon grammar for uncertain ventures in style.

Exercise

Write the correct form of each item either by attaching the frag- ment to the main sentence or by recasting the fragment to enable it to stand alone. Add in parentheses (when any term is appUcable) one of the following terms as a label of the fragment:

Prepositional phrase Member of compound predicate

Subordinate clause Appositive

Participial phrase Repeated grammatical construc-

Infinitive phrase tion

Gerund phrase Item of series

1. The illustration and copy must be carefully arranged. If the eye is to follow the advertisement through for the message.

2. My car is that Buick. Parked by the curb.

3. Yes, the adding machine gives the total correctly. When you strike the right keys.

4. We glue together the oblong pieces of cedar. Placing the lead in the central groove.

5. Some of the neighbors are inconsiderate. Especially those whose radios keep on blaring after 10 P. M.

10

FRAGMENTS WRONGLY USED AS SENTENCES

6. One problem is the rent. Which takes a third of their income.

7. The committee has adjourned. After wranghng for three hours.

8. Our forefathers decided upon a tariff. Both to raise revenue and to encourage manufacturing.

9. It is clear that these efforts must fail. That the pubUc will not support them,

10. Farmers in the Dust Bowl are planting trees and grass. And are terracing their land to retain the top soil.

11. It is an old stone building. With a quaint thatch roof.

12. The periscope is an ingenious invention. Which enables us to see round a corner.

13. W"e have reports from men who should know. Namely, the government engineers.

14. There are two things to consider: first, the imports, which are growing. In the second place, the exports. These have declined heavily.

15. The group expects to cut down expenses. Through cooperative buying on the part of its members.

16. It is necessary to gather the mail promptly. To distribute it promptly.

17. The cabins aboard the ship are pleasant. Each being provided with a port, which, however, is closed in stormy weather.

18. The form is set rigidly. So that it will not be displaced when the concrete is thrown in.

19. The weakness Ues in the screws. Where the threads soon become worn.

20. He should spend his first day in having his credits evaluated. These are Hkely to shrink. In consulting his adviser. And in registering for his courses.

21. The snake can open his mouth in such a way that the upper and lower jaws are perpendicular to their natural position. Thus admitting a large animal to the stomach.

22. The lever immediately flies back. When the finger ceases to press the key.

11

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

23. I had nothing but stone flies. While the trout were feeding on blue uprights.

24. We scent the clean morning air. Happy to be alive.

25. Insurance companies will not insure plate glass windows which are painted black. Because the absorption of sunlight causes the glass to crack.

26. Loss through forest fires has been reduced tremendously. On account of the thousands of miles of fire breaks, trails, roads, and telephone lines that now stretch through our wooded areas.

27. The whole garment will be marred. If you do not at once take up the dropped stitch.

28. The match splints are passed through a chemical solution. The object being to prevent an afterglow when the match has been used and blown out.

29. When you took off from Newark last night, chattering teletypes spread the word from coast to coast. Though you probably did not know this.

30. We made two long stops. One to have the carburetor adjusted and one to get lunch, besides pausing now and then to admire the view.

The Run-together Sentence

2. Avoid running sentences together with a comma or no mark between. (The joining of sentences by means of a comma is sometimes called ''the comma splice." Sentences joined without the aid of any punctuation whatever may be called "telescoped sentences.")

Comma splice : The town has three railroads, it was founded when oil was discovered. [Is one statement made, or are two? Is each statement, if taken alone, complete?]

Right: The town has three railroads. It was founded when oil was discovered.

12

THE RUN-TOGETHER SENTENCE

Comma splice: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was, this was due, no doubt, to the absence of noise. [Here are three commas. The reader cannot quickly discover which one marks the great division of thought.]

Right: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was. This was due, no doubt, to the absence of noise.

Telescoped sentences: Next we stroll past the exhibits these are roped off. [Here are two statements, each grammatically able to stand as a sentence. By fusing the two the writer denies the grammatical independence of one or the other.]

Right: Next we stroll past the exhibits. These are roped off.

Telescoped sentences: Who threw that ball it has broken my

window. Right: Who threw that ball? It has broken my window.

"ote. — The normal mark between independent clauses, when a con- nective is lacking, is the semicolon. But commas may be substituted when three or more short coordinate clauses are parallel in structure and leave a unified impression.

Permissible: All was excitement. The duckS quacked, the pigs

squealed, the dogs barked. [The general idea excitement gives

the three clauses a certain unity.]

low to Correct a Run-Together Sentence

Wrong: The winters are long and cold, nothing can Uve without

shelter. [Or]

Wrong: The winters are long and cold nothing can live without

shelter.

a. Separate the statements (the best way for an inexperi- enced writer) :

The winters are long and cold. Nothing can live without shelter.

18

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

b. Use a comma plus the conjunction and {but, or, or for)

The winters are long and cold, and nothing can live without shelter.

c. Use a semicolon:

The winters are long and cold; nothing can live without shelter.

d. Subordinate one statement to the other by- Reducing the first to a phrase :

During the long and cold winters nothing can live without shelter.

Reducing the first to a subordinate clause:

Since the \\inters are long and cold nothing can live without shelter. Reducing the second to a phrase :

The winters are too long and cold for anjrthing to live without shelter.

Reducing the second to a subordinate clause :

The winters are so long and cold that nothing can Uve without shelter.

Exercise Correct each item twice — first by the method you regard as best, and afterward in parentheses by the best alternate method.

1 . Night fell the boat drove on.

2. It's not my problem you're the one w^ho started the thing.

3. Every boy should have a hobby, he can study bird songs or carve model ships.

4. The table needs staining besides it is of pine, not of oak.

5. You spend three years in senior high school, after that you go to junior college.

6. You may examine a spinning wheel for yourself, the museum has one.

14

THE RUN-TOGETHER SENTENCE

7. You pull out the choke you get the car started.

8. Deep moisture is what counts water the lawn thoroughly rather than often.

9. Every Saturday afternoon the traffic jam is terrible that is on account of the football game.

10. Used cars may be damaged in ways not easily detected, other- wise I should advise you to buy one.

11. The traveler has seen the rope trick in India, he also tells of strange feats of levitation in Thibet.

12. The bottom of the box is then put in, it is nailed to the sides.

13. Why would no one come to help me, my feet ached and I was thirsty.

14. This city furnished many boats for the siege of Calais when these boats returned they brought the plague with them.

15. ''Would you Uke to be counselor in a boys' camp?" asked Joe, "if you would I can get you a job."

16. His sight is too poor for him to read the papers nevertheless he gets the news over the radio.

17. The security is ample, unfortunately the rate of interest is too low.

18. You will enjoy that collection of old books you will find some rare autographs too.

19. "I shear that dog every summer," said Hinchman, "it keeps him from suffering from the heat."

20. The oil wells are distant from large cities, the pipe fines are hundreds of miles long.

21. The current sets strongly toward the opposite bank, it is hard to land here.

22. The 16-miUimeter camera has made the nonprofessional motion picture possible many persons moreover are going in for color photography.

23. Stuart Chase says that our integrity is being undermined in various ways the foUowing are some of them.

24. The courier buys the railroad tickets and makes hotel reserva-

16

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

tions for the party he also pays the tips, which otherwise would be a great nuisance. 25. If the concrete is hard the gunner cannot clean it and jack- hammer men have to do the cutting with drills, this is an ex- pensive process.

The And Sentence

3. Guard against the habit oF thoughtlessly putting into a sen- tence two or more statements joined by and. A sentence of this type may be grammatical. Often it is needed. But when it is written merely from habit, it may contain more material than it should or may obscure the fine shades of meaning. Moreover a series of such sentences becomes monotonous. Break up carelessly written and sentences by separating the material into smaller units, or by subordinating lesser ideas to the main thought.

Thoughtless repetition of and: The second speaker had sat quietly waiting, and he was a man of a different type, and he began calmly, and the audience paid little heed to him, and after a while he became more earnest.

Better: The second speaker, who had sat quietly waiting, was a man of a different type. He began so calmly that the audience paid Httle heed to him. After a while he became more earnest.

''Rocking-horse" sentences: Carl vdshed to play the organ and he was willing to practice hard. There are many stops on the instrument and these control the tones of the pipes. Carl had to learn how to use them and this took a great deal of time.

Better: Carl, eager to play the organ, was willing to practice hard. But there are many stops which control the tones of the pipes. To learn how to use these took Carl a great deal of time.

16

THE AND SENTENCE

Failure to assign values properly:* He published prose fiction, and this was then the accepted hterary form, and the drama was neglected. [Here the WTiter joins the three ideas as equals.]

Better: He pubUshed prose fiction, which was then the accepted literary form, the drama being neglected. [There is now a di- minishing series. The important idea is expressed in a main clause, a less important explanation is given in a dependent clause, and a still less important comment is made in a phrase at the end.]

Note. — So and hut, like and, are used more than they should be to string statements together. So, if repeatedly employed, brings writing to the colloquial level — or below it. Bid, if repeatedly em- ployed, makes the reader's thought "tack" or change its course too often; many good writers will not begin two successive sentences or clauses vAih. hut**

Crude repetition of so: So the bolts are not properly tempered, so they break when the strain comes, so the whole mechanism falls to the earth, and so fives are lost. Better: Because the bolts, not being properly tempered, break when the strain comes, the whole mechanism falls to the earth. In consequence fives are lost.

Compficated repetition of hut: He was undoubtedly a brave man, but now he was somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn back.

Better: He ^as undoubtedly a brave man; though now somewhat alarmed, he would not turn back. [Or] He was undoubtedly a brave man. He was now somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn back.

Exercise

Break up the stringy or monotonously patterned sentences or reword them to subordinate the lesser ideas.

* For treatments of emphasis and the ranking of ideas see 48 and 44D. ** For the use of but in prolonged comparisons see the last example in 44C.

17

THE COMPLETE SENTENCE

1. Our salesman, Mr. Powers, has spoken very favorably of your firm, and we feel that our relations will be most pleasant, and the report of the commercial agencies is sufficient evidence of your financial standing.

2. Look, the picture is all out of focus, and so you can't see the faces distinctly, so I can barely recognize mother.

3. The house with the red tile roof is the finest in the city, and it is owned by Mr. Saunders, and he made his money speculating in land.

4. Socrates did no writing himself, and the only information we have of him we get from the writings of his pupils and from later writers, and our most reliable knowledge comes from two of these writers, Plato and Xenophon.

5. We have a large house and the rooms are rather scattered. Father has an office to himself and it is some distance from the telephone. He has installed an extension and two of us can listen at once.

6. The airplane must have been far above the earth, but the fog cut off our view, but we gazed with dehght at the fog-drift around us.

7. The car arrives at the boundary and officers stop it and you are much surprised and they ask whether you have fruit or vegeta- tion of any sort and they say you are not allowed to carry such things into the state.

8. Some years there is little rainfall, so crops are short, so prices go up, so the poor in the cities cannot buy food.

9. Lois said we would be hungry and we decided to take a lunch with us. Armand bought some bread and sHced ham and Estelle made the sandwiches. I wrapped these in wax paper and they kept very fresh.

10. Williamsburg, Virginia, had of course changed, but not so much as most towns, but John D. Rockefeller, Jr., supphed the money to restore the place as it was in the eighteenth century. However, this was not done in a gaudy way, but everybody who goes there is genuinely impressed.

18

OMISSION OF WORDS

Omission of Words*

4. Insert all the words necessary For completeness.

OMISSIONS FROM THE WHOLE SENTENCE

Telegraphic stj'le: Appreciate your kind inciiiir}^ about Brooks

estate. Would say land is still for sale, and no advance in price.

[The meaning is clear, but the manner should be avoided both in

ordinary T\Titing and in ordinarj'- speech.] Better: We appreciate your kind inquiry about the Brooks

estate. The land is still for sale without any advance in price.

Wrong: At taps all hghts must go out. A cessation of noise and the soldier's day ends. [A cessation of noise lacks grammatical connection and completion.]

Right: At taps all hghts must go out. With the cessation of noise the soldier's day ends. [Or, better] At taps all hghts must go out and noise must cease. Thus the soldier's day ends.

Wrong: WTien one year old, my mother died. [The omission of subject and verb from the when clause gives the sentence a meaning which is not intended.] Right: "WTien I was one year old, my mother died.